Art and Design A comprehensive guide for creative artists - Aaltodoc

and Design Art and deign Art and design Art and Design Ar 

Art and Design Art and deign Art and design Art and Design Art and design Art and design 

Art Art and and Design 

A comprehensive A comprehensive guide guide for creative for creative artists artists 

Muyanja Muyanja Michael Michael

© Muyanja Michael (2011). 

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be produced or transmitted in any 

form or by any means. Electronic or mechanical, Including photocopy, recording, or 

any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the 

publisher. 

The images for this book were produced entirely by the author 

Request for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to: 

muyanjam@yahoo.com 

1

Preface 

The goals of this book 

1. To provide a broad and comprehensive introduction to guiding 

principals and theories of art and design. 

2. To present creative approaches of doing art and design in a 

reader-oriented format. 

3. To provide a module of teaching and studying art and design using 

recycled as well as locally available materials for students of the course. 

Target category 

a. Students preparing to qualify for examinations in major professional 

institutions such as secondary schools, colleges of art and design in 

respect to the syllabi at hand. 

b. Professional students taking qualifying examinations of the Uganda 

National Examinations Board. 

c. Undergraduate students on degree courses in commercial art and 

industrial art and design as well as fine art. 

d. Post-training students on industrial training and school practice. 

e. Practitioners and qualifying professional students in the areas of full 

or part-time courses in interior design, fabric printing, graphic design, 

sculpture, ornaments, drawing, painting, mosaics et cetera. 

f. Practitioners in the art business, commercial, public and not-for profit 

sectors of art and design or fine art. 

Format 

a. Associated groups of chapters have been assembled into sections with 

each; ending with a fitting tasks for self-review. 

b. Mostly, the availed sample questions address social issues of people’s 

daily lives. 

c. Easy to use tables have been convened in some sections for a quick 

review of the most wanted subject matter. 

d. The book provides a brief review of history of African art. In individual 

and separate chapters. 

e. Important resources are listed in references for further reading at the 

back of this book. 

f. Enough space has been made available on each side of facing pages 

for the user to make notes. 

2 3 

Use 

• This book can be used as a unit or module textbook, as well as a 

study text for students working on an independent or personallearning 

basis. 

• Also, it can be used as an instruction manual for persons actively 

associated with art and design fields of study. 

Comments and suggestions 

The author welcomes constructive comments and suggestions from 

readers, artists and institutions about the content and format of this book. 

Lecturers’ supplement 

A free lecturers’ supplement is available to those lecturers, teachers and 

tutors adopting the book for their course text. It may be obtained by 

writing on college, or institution headed paper to the author or through the 

publishers.

Contents 

Preface 

• The goals of this book 2 

• Target category 2 

• Format 2 

• Use 3 

• Comments and suggestions 3 

• Lecturers’ supplement 3 

Contents 

Acknowledgement 

CHAPTER ONE 

Art and design 10 

• Importance of art and design 10 

• African art 11 

• Aesthetics 12 

• Fashion and art 14 

• Rituals and worship 16 

• Architecture 18 

• Elements of African aesthetics 18 

CHAPTER TWO 

Elements and principles of design 20 

• Form 22 

• Shape 22 

• Line 24 

• Dots 25 

• Mass, Volume and Space 27 

• Texture 28 

• Value 29 

• Colour 29 

• Systems of colour 31 

Principles of design 34 

• Contrast 36 

• Emphasis 38 

• Perspective 39 

• Balance 36 

• Rhythm and movement 37 

• Proportion 39 

• Harmony 40 

• Unity 41 

Exercise 42 

CHAPTER THREE 

Drawing 43 

• Drawing nature and still life 47 

• Landscapes 49 

• Drawing from imagination 50 

• Human figure drawing 52 

• Croquis 54 

• How to pose a model 56 

• How to draw animals 57 

• How to draw objective study 59 

Exercise 60 

CHAPTER FOUR 

Painting 62 

• Uses of painting 63 

• Painting tools 64 

• Surfaces for painting 65 

• Liquids for painting 66 

• Painting and application of materials 67 

• Painting techniques 70 

• Advantages of using acrylic paints 74 

• Advantages of using oil paints 75 

Exercise 76 

CHAPTER FIVE 

Graphic design 77 

• Uses of graphic design 79 

• Information graphics 80 

• How to plan a design process 80 

• Features of a graphic design 82 

• Typography 82 

• How to use typography on 

a visual design 83 

• Calligraphy 86 

• How to construct block letters 87 

• How shapes influence letter 

construction 89 

• Lowercase 90 

• Layouts 90 

• Types of layouts 92 

• How elements and principles of 

design can be used on layout designs 92 

• Illustration 94 

• Types of illustrations 96 

• How to make an illustration 97 

• How to explain a visual/identification 

symbol 98 

• How to design a card 104 

• How to design a poster 105 

• How to design a badge 107 

• How to design a book cover 108 

• How to make a repeat pattern 110 

• How to compose a wrapper 111 

• Computer aided printing 112 

• Methods of printing 113 

• Commercial printing 115 

• Advertisement 117 

• Useful ways of advertising 117 

Exercise 119 

CHAPTER SIX 

Collage 120 

• Uses of collage 122 

• Characteristics of collage art 123 

• How to make a simple collage 124 

Exercise 126 

CHAPTER SEVEN 

Mosaic 127 

• Materials and tools 128 

• Characteristics of mosaics 128 

• How to produce a simple mosaic 131 

Exercise 132 

CHAPTER EIGHT 

Ornaments 133 

• Uses of ornaments 135 

• Materials and tools for 

making ornaments 136 

• Sources of inspiration for designing 

jewellery artworks 140 

• Techniques of decorating jewellery 142 

• Finishing jewellery 143 

• How to make a simple necklace 144 

Exercise 145 

CHAPTER NINE 

Weaving 146 

• Uses of weaving 148 

• Functional handiwork of weaving 149 

• Weaving tools 153 

• Weaving equipment 155 

• Methods of weaving 157 

• The non-woven interlacing 

techniques of weaving 159 

• How to produce a simple weave 

using a cardboard box 160 

• How to make a paper weave 161 

Exercise 162 

CHAPTER TEN 

Fabric decoration 163 

• Uses of decorated fabrics 164 

• Types of clothing materials 165 

• Fiber and fabric 165 

• Characteristic of fabrics 165 

• Materials and tools used for fabric 

decoration 167 

• Inks 168 

• Surfaces 168 

• Methods of printing on 

fabric surfaces 169 

• Photo emulsion 171 

• Type of printing meshes 171 

• Approaches of decorating fabrics 172 

• Environment as a source of 

inspiration for decorating fabrics 174 

• Repeat patterns 175 

• Types of repeat patterns 176 

4 5

• Decorating fabrics with more 

than two colours 177 

• How to make a simple batik 179 

Exercise 181 

CHAPTER ELEVEN 

Sculpture 182 

• Elements and principles of 

sculptural design 183 

• Methods of sculpture 184 

• Types of sculpture 185 

• Tools, materials and equipment for 

sculpture 187 

• Sculpture techniques 190 

• Preparing clay for making a 

sculpture 192 

• Maquette 194 

• An armature 194 

• Sculpture from wood 195 

• Stone sculpture 196 

• Casting clay 198 

• Types of moulds 198 

• Kilns 200 

• Welding sculpture 201 

• Finishing a sculpture 202 

Exercise 203 

CHAPTER TWELVE 

Pottery 204 

• Properties of clay 205 

• Materials and tools used in pottery 

making 206 

• Clay classifications 208 

• Mining clay 209 

• Advantages 210 

• Preparing clay for pottery 210 

• Techniques of hand building 213 

• Techniques of decorating greenware 215 

• Throwing clay on a wheel 217 

Exercise 219 

CHAPTER THIRTEEN 

Photography 220 

• Uses of photography 221 

• Photography motifs 222 

• Elements and principles of design 

in photography 223 

• Categories of photographs 225 

• A pinhole camera (obscura) 226 

• How to make a simple 

pinhole camera 227 

• Film and digital 228 

• Benefits of using a digital camera 228 

• Benefits of using a film camera 229 

Exercise 230 

CHAPTER FOURTEEN 

A candidate in the examination 

room 232 

• Tasks for revision 234 

• Category one 235 

• Category two 236 

• Category three 237 

• Category four 

• How to make art and design 

237 

assessments 238 

• A marking guide 240 

• Index 241 

• Books 243 

6 7

Introduction 

Art and Design: A Comprehensive Guide for Creative Artists has been carefully written as a 

knowledge base for art and design training, schoolwork and practice. Indeed, learners who 

will use this book will surely have a good start and they will also increase their awareness 

of the diversity of art and design—outside the physical limits of a classroom. 

We use Art and Design to learn about other people, their cultures and values; to 

communicate and to express our thoughts and feelings. Art can be used in different 

traditional ways like worships, adoration and ceremonies. 

Art and Design, A Comprehensive Guide for Creative Artists provides it all with scholarly 

academic instructions associated with the needs of local people. 

This book also argues that creative artists should remember to consider their actual 

application of ideas to practices. It provides feasible guidance to continuous working 

during school sessions and after classroom as a way of increasing learners' curiosities on 

every side of learning. Hence, maintain proficiency. 

Art and Design, A Comprehensive Guide for Creative Artists has provided suggestions 

of ideas to artists especially art learners, with various ways of developing and producing 

artworks from available sources of inspirations, by encouraging experimentation and 

innovative thinking where there is scarcity during learning, let alone materials of art are 

expensive. 

As a consequence of that, skills of creativity have been reinforced together with strategies 

of executing art by nurturing the learner to use found objects and local materials, tools 

and equipment—at some future time, a learning process shall reach the ambition of 

recycling. 

Art and Design, A Comprehensive Guide for Creative Artists also provides study 

recommendations about art and design topics necessary for learners in secondary schools 

and art colleges. Although by design, the basic learning goals in various chapters of the 

book have not been set for a particular level or group of learners. The teacher is advised to 

rely on the art teaching syllabus to plan a lesson. 

A lot of consultations about useful academic comprehension have been referred to as a 

way of stretching for essential school knowledge. In that case, several reference books and 

online links have been included for further reading and to provide good cross-examination 

on important topics with possible solutions, during art debates and/or for discussions. 

Acknowledgement 

The book project Art and Design, A Comprehensive Guide for Creative Artists has been 

written with the help of remarkable people who have advised, given me ideas and 

suggestions about how to improve the book. I received a lot of knowledge and assistance 

from various intelligent people during my time as a student at Kyambogo University. 

Department of Art and Design with Education. 

My team-mates at that time were; Henry Mujjuzi, Edwin Wathum, Joan Kekimuri Arineitwe, 

Justine Nabaggala (PhD-candidate), Jenny Namuwonge Kyeyune and Emmanuel Mutungi 

(PhD-candidate) 

Let me also congratulate my other auxiliary team of Makerere University, Margaret Trowell 

School of Industrial and Fine Arts, from whom I obtained inspirational awakening of 

self-understanding to promote and improve the purpose of the book. 

They were; Dr George Kyeyune (PhD), Dr Venny Nakazibwe (PhD), Dr. Kabiito Mutagejja 

Richard (PhD) and Dr. Kizito Maria Kasule (PhD). I am also grateful to teachers; John 

Mary Mawejje and Mark Kasiita Muliro for permission to work with children from their 

(secondary) schools. I am convinced that they will recognise that I learned a lot from them. 

A lot of useful ideas, concepts, opinions and approaches of learning about art and 

design—moral support, knowledge to change and develop the book was made available 

during the length of time I spent at Taideteollinen korkeakoulu (University of Art and 

Design. Taik, Finland) it is currently known as Aalto University, School of Art and Design, 

Department of Media (Graphic Design). I wish to thank Professor. Tapio Vapaasalo for 

advising me throughout the process of writing and printing this work; and staff of the 

Department. 

Pirkko Pohjakallio-Koskinen, Heikki Ohvo and Rebekka Muyanja for all their study 

contributions and equipment, hardware and software. 

I am appreciative to them all and to my friends, the editor Mark and Sinipii Pickett as 

well as Professor Kefa. M. Otiso, University of Minnesota for a great deal of help. They all 

provided me with many useful suggestions that made it possible for me to finish the 

book. Also, am grateful to Mihail Solanakis for giving me access to the working studio/ 

classrooms. Heikki Ohvo and Satu Ilta for guiding me in matters of establishing a fulfilling 

layout for the design of the book. 

Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends whose support and encouragement 

made this book a worthwhile undertaking. 

8 9

CHAPTER ONE 

Art and design 

Art and design is a broad discipline, which occupies the 

complete attention of creativity, function, expression, form 

and composition. 

Needless to say, the meanings and explanations of art and 

design differ in so many ways. 

Cohen et al (1976, 17) prefer a different description: “Art 

refers to the conscious efforts of human beings; alongside 

enclosed arrangement of colours, shapes, lines, sound, 

movement and other sensory phenomenon, to express 

their ideas and feelings about themselves and their world.” 

Generally, art and design add up to skill acquisition, 

function, history, politics, business, music, architecture, 

environment and society/community. 

Importance of art and design 

Not every importance of art shall be considered here. But 

for the sake of learning let us make our analysis with Irving's 

(1996) explanation that “art education seek to develop 

sensitive, creative and artistically literate individuals 

who may grow to learn aesthetically, emotionally and 

intellectually through active expression in arts.” 

That is to say, the important aspects of art and design study 

lead to acquiring necessary knowledge of subject matter, a 

common ground of creativity, aesthetic awareness, function 

and self-expressions. Jenkins (1980, 12) adds, “… the value 

of art to the child is as the goals of an art experience and 

projects.” 

Here are some indistinguishable adaptations selected from 

Jenkins (1980, 12) transcribed value of art to a child and to 

the society: 

• Art and design is a source of material for spiritual, 

political, economic, social and religious rituals. 

• Art and design “develops creative thinking.” 

• It is a desirable skill set out for self-employment. 

• By doing art and design we “enhance our visual 

ability.” 

• Art and design provides an easy “means of 

communication and self-expression.” Through 

critiques and by creating designs. 

• On the other hand, a learner can “generate 

absolute joy” of gaining an evidence-based skill 

whenever an art and design task is successfully 

executed. 

• Many art and design courses “provide problem 

solving decisions and opportunities.” 

• It also “serves as a balance to the daily classroom 

activities.” 

• It allows the development of workshop habits and 

“sense of responsibility” by working in groups. 

• It is used as a tool of “understanding and helping 

children,” natural tendencies. 

• Art and design can also be used for intensifying 

“aesthetic awareness” and appreciation of 

indigenous art and local materials. 

• Art and design has got latent qualities that allow 

interconnections with other academic disciplines 

like science and history. 

• Doing art and design increases the learner's 

attention span, tolerance, commitment and 

interpretation of facts. 

• Art and design holds diverse lucrative career 

options such as, teaching; art and design and 

working as a landscape decorator, interior, fashion 

and furniture designer. 

African art 

African art can briefly be traced from various sources. 

Willett (1971, 28, 36) believes, “it is anonymous.” To this point, 

a lot of pre historic art has been discovered in the African 

highlands, caves below mountains, river basins and forest 

lowlands in central and parts of western Africa. 

On the other hand, African art originates from different 

societies of people. For example, the Hausa of Northern 

Nigeria, Ibo, Fanti, Fulani, Yoruba, Mangbetu, Kota, 

Makonde, Bambara, Kwele, Luba and the most predominant 

Bantu. 

10 11

From each group of the traditional African people we 

find “common aesthetic standards which operate across 

cultural frontiers.” While at the same time, “... among the 

many groups, art is fundamentally non-professional ... a 

man whose talent is well known may be commissioned to 

work for someone else. Therefore, “a single work ... cannot 

represent a whole.” (Willett 1971, 216, 222) 

Accordingly, studies of pre historic African art indicate that, 

subject matter and technique depicted the activities of the 

people who lived in the distinct places. Willett (1971, 48, 58) 

argues with this enlightening example that on rock walls 

“engravings ... of animals now extinct in the area ... are still 

found in the Sahara rocks.” Also, the paintings reveal animals 

and figures of humans in hunting or fighting actions. 

Indeed, some of the latest paintings and engravings seen 

today—appear to have been made by “Bantu speaking 

people and some were probably done by Hettentots.” 

Aesthetics 

African art served various known for functions. It is “not just 

about aesthetics, it is also about meaning and function.” It 

has many different aspects of human society that can be 

studied, in ethnic regional and religious attributes—“in 

specific time periods and medium of the artwork.” 

(Forafricanart.com.2006) 

From this we can understand that there is much to learn 

from the big scope of African art. For the most part, beauty 

and worship was a satisfaction of everyday life for the 

people. Different tribes created art for household, beauty 

and architectural purposes. For instance, in Nigeria the 

Bandele and Lamidi made “traditional forms of sculpture, 

weaving, embroidery, leather and bead work ... but, there 

were a specific aesthetic for each society.” Willett (1971, 208, 

247-248) alleges. 

Several African tribal people decorate their bodies using 

aesthetically pleasing colours from “natural pigments.” Other 

decorative embellishments used were ornamentation and 

body scarring to portray beauty for women. And for men, 

scaring indicated strength and toughness. Moreover, by 

using materials from nature “body painting was not done in 

isolation.” As Silvester (2009, 4) states 

Krutak (2008) prefers a different justification: “Distinctive 

people among the Fulani wear bright dresses, much 

jewellery and even facial makeup for beauty.” Therefore, 

the notion of aesthetic judgement with reference to tribal 

people of Africa was wide spread. It was also practiced by 

body tribes in Ethiopia (Omo), Chad (Fulani), Zaire (Luba) 

and many in the sub-Sahara regions of Africa. 

A large number of African tribal women make baskets as 

aesthetic expressions of their culture and identity. The 

techniques used in weaving are still distributed through 

inheritance from (traditional) indigenous knowledge. 

Remarkable types of baskets are aesthetically woven in 

different shapes and sizes for various purposes. Somjee 

(1993, 82) informs us, “... in Busia District, the high land 

weavers use reeds from river banks to make ebukuti” type 

of basket. He continues to state that “the smallest eating 

baskets are covered with cow dung on the outside ... to 

keep and serve ugali—covered with another basket to 

keep it warm and away from dust and flies.” And the “larger 

baskets carry” food stuffs from the market. 

Evidently, then, African art and aesthetics reveals some 

levels of quality, function and beauty. At the same time, it 

is creatively executed from natural fibres, which come from 

our accustomed surroundings; the use of locally obtained 

weaving materials helps the tribal people to decorate 

functional baskets, mats, carpets that are woven to carry or 

keep food, clothing and other personal items 

such as medicines or makeup. 

As earlier mentioned, many African tribal 

people do painting and scar decorations 

on their bodies. The same decorations of 

geometrical shapes and patterns are also used 

to enhance surface appearances of their day 

to day domestic equipment, as well as decorating 

home territories or places of residences. Willet (1971, 17) 

notes, “the Masai of Kenya and northern Tanganyika not 

only paint their shields with decorations which indicate 

their groups of sections, but they occasionally paint—other 

motifs on immobile surfaces such as rock shelters and even 

concrete water containers.” 

A wooden bowl. 

It is decorated 

with geometric 

designs. 

12 13

Several examples of geometric patterns on objects of art 

can be found in Songee's (1993, 50-51) Materials and culture 

of Kenya. He lists “tools, containers and body wear” made by 

various tribal groups of Kenya. 

Here are some of them: 

• The naksi patterns—are nine in small spaces, 

delicately carved with a sharp knife on a club. Such 

patterns are also made on furniture and houses. 

• The Barona eating bowl; on its surface, the 

container reveals carvings of geometric—“circular 

shapes” relating to the shape of the bowl. 

• A milk container used by the Turkana. Its mouth 

is made of leather that is skilfully joined on the 

wood, with the joints stitched by fine palm-leaf. 

They show strips of beautiful pattern in triangles 

and lines. 

• Another one is “the stelab”—carefully dressed in a 

red leather sheath, from the Northern Kenya. It is a 

Somali sword decorated with patterns of crosses. 

The patterns are also used to mark animals by 

clans. 

We can also add more to this as a conclusion by 

reconsidering basic geometric shapes throughout the 

course of teaching art—and also regard the effect of 

recycling with the demands of specified learning objectives 

for art and design projects. Harney (2004, 123) explains, “The 

growing popularity of recycling has brought with it new 

aesthetic discourses and paradoxically, has opened new 

spaces.” 

Fashion and art 

Fashions and art, side by side with African art is broad. 

In the meantime, there are many tribal groups of African 

people who have not yet discovered the needs of popular 

trends; to dressing up—wearing clothes or fabrics to cover 

their bodies. Instead, they wear improvised ornamental 

objects in styles of their own particular meanings. Or they 

are “generally naked.” (Silvester 2009, 3) 

On the other hand, some of the most admired African 

fashions, decorations and patterns—such as those made 

by weaving techniques have their traditional patterns 

revealing a series of geometric motifs. 

Also, some groups of African tribal people wear colourful 

fabrics that are treated with natural dyes. The designs 

created on fabric surfaces reveal intricate patterns 

and designs. A mix and match of heavy jewellery 

is also worn to pronounce status and for 

different fashions as being worthy of attention. 

Somjee (1993, 11) reminds us, “a traditional married 

Tugen woman wears ... a beautiful skirt with many strings 

until the time that she becomes a widow. It is a symbol of 

her marriage and it is as important as a ring in a Christian 

marriage.” 

In Eastern Africa, elderly men wear kanzu cloth (similar to 

an Arabic tunic) for informal occasions such as cultural 

rituals, ceremonies and worships. Similarly, on the Kenya 

coastal province of Bajumwali and among the Baganda 

tribe of Uganda, the “male wear a coat or a jibau, over a 

kanzu—in similar fashion with the European design of a 

coat.'' Somjee (1993, 17) notes 

Other tribal groups of African people like the Mursi of Omo 

valley in southern Ethiopia cut and pierce their bodies; 

particularly the face for facial markings. Others use a lip 

plate as a sign of beauty. In the words of Silvester (2009, 

4), “they can take any material from the plant world—leaf, 

stem, flower, grass, roots—and instantly transform it into 

an accessory that has come straight from a fantasy of fairy 

tale, for them nature provides an infinite wardrobe.” In an 

indistinguishable way, various creative fashion wears have 

also been replicated by artists and fashion designers who 

develop and create new styles of clothing and fashion 

accessories of today. 

Otiso (2006, 76) laments, the “traditional Ugandan dress was 

made from readily available materials such as tree leaves, 

grass, bark cloth as well as livestock and wild life skins.” 

Coincidentally, such practices were tribal gestures of beauty. 

They disclose art of traditional communities in dignified 

fashions. 

Among the Borana tribe originating from Southern Ethiopia 

to the South Northern areas of Kenya, they put-on body 

covers consideration their climate. They are nomadic 

pastoral people who use “the baddo, a hand woven cotton 

cloth. It is rectangular—made of two pieces of cloth 

stitched together ... like two bed covers.” (Somjee 1993, 14) 

A man 

dressed in a 

traditional 

wear of a 

kanzu 

14 15

A tribal African 

man wearing 

a ceremonial 

headdress, made 

with feathers 

from birds 

The fabric protects the nomads from hot sun and cold 

nights. 

Ultimately, while some tribal African people wear 

head-dresses made with plants or natural objects, 

others wear complete ornamental head-dresses 

made with non-native fabrics to cover or band the 

head. To some groups of people head-dresses are 

worn on ceremonial occasions. 

Somjee (1993, 5) reminds us that “In some exclusive 

tribes they are status symbols elders' head wears 

reflect authority, wealth and wisdom. It also gives an 

ethnic and national identity to the wearer.” 

Rituals and worship 

Numerous indigenous African people believe and they 

also worship small gods. African art production usually 

empathises with ceremonies like rituals and it serves 

on a more spiritual basis in many tribes—the artist who 

produced it also had a high status. The objects carved were 

used for showing social status and spiritual well-being. 

During ritual and worship ceremonies, the young and 

old tribal people dance to entice, entertain and to evoke 

feelings of praise and worship. They play traditional musical 

instruments made from horns of animals, drums made with 

animal skin; stretched on hollow shaped tree logs and they 

dress up with plant leaves and feathers from birds. Kyeyune 

(2003, 56) explains, “It is not entirely correct to say that art ... 

was not spiritually driven.” 

Equally, during worships, different tribal people dress up 

in ritual wears; sometimes they carry artistic instruments 

of power. Their wears tend to differ by location and many 

times—every aspect is associate with a definite importance 

that may be related to a specific ritual. 

Some materials and equipment used include wooden or 

clay masks, drums, beads; created from different kinds of 

wood, seeds and bones. All these are intended for evoking 

feelings of praise and worship. They may be worn in the 

head, neck, hands and legs. Ritual worshipers also use 

bonfires and they also tend to drink local beers. 

In Benin the scarification ritual includes “blood sacrifices 

that are accompanied by singing and dancing.” Krutak 

(2008) observes. African ceremonial art was skilfully done 

with hands—out of wood, stone, plant fibres or any other 

natural materials and then, it is often richly decorated 

in tribal designs for relevant rituals; some underlying 

meanings are revealed through “super structural” adorations 

of various traditional tribal societies. For they “add to the 

entertainment value of the mask.” (Willet 1971, 66) 

The Akan people of Ghana used carved stools as symbols 

which connected they're being to gods. They valued carved 

stools so highly that no one is allowed to sit on a stool he / 

she does not own. 

Ejizu (2010) believes, “a carved ancestral stool among the 

Akan of Ghana and 'okpensi' of the traditional Igbo ... are 

also the shrines of the 'Muzimu' and (ancestors) among the 

Baganda of Uganda.” Each time that person is not sittings 

on the stool. It is turned on side (Up-side down) as a way of 

avoiding another person's spirit to get absorbed in it. 

Moreover, during entertainments or performances the 

guests and worshipers dress up in ritual masks and other 

ornamentations. Such wears are common during the 

activity days of communal feasts and commemorations. 

Other special occasions include cleansing, honouring, 

entertaining, initiations and giving blessings. According to 

Otiso, (1970, 130) on “weddings, songs are routinely sung to 

praise the bride and the groom and also offer them advice 

on how to successfully conduct marriage.” 

The “Bapembe people from Congo carved and decorated 

wooden masks to manage or guard themselves from attacks 

of dead ancestors and super natural forces ... The person 

who has to benefit from their intervention may be required 

to wear a miniature copy of the mask” (Willet 1970, 195). 

In Western Africa, the Yoruba people of Nigeria and Benin 

used an ornamented tray for divination. In Jegede's (2002) 

article, This is African Art? Now You Confuse Me—“the tray 

is used by a priest, or babalawo, in assisting a client to find 

spiritual solution to his or her problems.” 

We can conclude from this that masks, stools and other 

instruments were relevant for rituals and worships for 

the African people. “There were also communal shrines, 

masquerades, ritual objects for festivals, recreational 

activity, social, economic and religious purposes” (Ejizu, 

2010). 

16 17

Architecture 

A basic example of the earliest architectural belongings 

of African art, were caves and the remains of the ancient 

Egyptian tomb pyramids. They are the burial places of dead 

kings. Inside a pyramid, the body of a dead king was buried 

in the company of statues and everything that he would 

need in the afterlife. They also decorated the tombs with 

scenes of life recounting their adventures and for magical 

rituals “to ensure that it becomes imbued within the spirit of 

the dead.” (Willett 1971, 112) 

Generally, African architecture and art is legendarily 

executed from a diversity of disintegrative materials such as 

rammed earth, thatch, sticks/wood, mud or mud bricks, stone 

and clay. As an example, the architectural structure of the 

Ganda tombs for kings at Kasubi near Kampala in Uganda 

are built with mud walls, the roof is thatched with grass 

and the enclosing fence is woven with reeds. Inside, the big 

tomb or hut, the interior is adorned with royal regalia of 

spears, decorative mats, bark cloth, animal skins and furniture. 

The reed works of the interior are put up to represent the “52 

clans of Baganda.” Kyeyune (2003, 45) adds. 

Eventually, as a way of accounting for the main points of 

this study, African art is a very broad area of study. In this 

subsection, our analysis has been built with several generalisations 

which do not cover everything. It is difficult to say 

if they cover even most of the African societies, but these 

generalisations are kind of typical features of African art in 

the African societies. 

That is to say, it is a statistical model that does not resemble 

any specific African society in reality and not as much as 

may be required is availed in every expressions of this 

subject matter about African art. As a creative artist select 

what is influential to the impending discussion and do 

further analysis from the books, which have been listed in 

the reference section. 

Elements of African aesthetics 

Ability and skill are some of the values of African art and 

aesthetics. “The term African aesthetics often intersects 

words like beauty and goodness ... the Baule peoples of 

Côte d'Ivoire and others have discerned among the Lega 

and Songye of the Congo and the Igbo, Edo and Ibibio of 

Nigeria, among others.” (Vogel, 1986) 

As a further matter, Vogel (1986), obtained individual 

analysis—but not in the same way as Willett (1971) on 

aspects of African aesthetics in the following ways: 

Resemblance 

Luminosity 

Self-composed 

Youthfulness 

Clarity of forms 

and detail 

African artists glorify carved figures; they 

believe that such figures look like human 

beings. They almost depict actual people, 

animals, or the actual forms. According to 

Willett (1971, 212), it is “jijora, the moderate 

resemblance of the subject.” 

African figural sculptures are often 

embellished with luminous decorated 

surfaces, or they are combined with scaring 

patterns to denote beauty of their healthy 

skin. Willett (1971, 213) explains, “luminosity, 

or smoothness of a surface as didon.” Rough 

and deformed parts were considered ugly 

and morally invalid. 

African artists connect composed behaviour 

of persons in a rational way. They regard 

such people as controlled, proud, majestic, 

dignified and cool. Willett (1971, 213) 

argues, “coolness or composure is tutu in 

sculpture—a quality which is sought in 

human behaviour too.” 

Implies strength, productiveness, 

toughness, fertility and ability to work. 

Yet, Illness and deformity are infrequently 

portrayed—for the reason that, they are evil 

signs. Willett (1971, 213) names it “Odo, where 

by, the subject is represented in the prime 

of life.” 

Intricacy as well as composition, balance 

and symmetry, smoothness of finish. Willett 

(1971, 211, 213) briefly explains clarity of forms 

and detail as “ifarahon, visibility.” Certainly, 

“a sculptor will often carve spontaneously, 

inspired by a beautiful face, but without 

attempting to simply represent what they 

have seen.” 

By regarding Willett's (1971, 208) survey about aesthetics 

in African sculpture—“artists and art critics cultivate their 

awareness of artistic values in a way not shared by large 

sections of the community.” For that matter, elements of 

African aesthetics link value to the artworks we produce, by 

virtue of physical perfection, moral excellence, social order 

and some domains of our social activities. 

18 19

CHAPTER TWO 

Elements and principles of design 

Artist Henry Matisse once said, “Creation begins with vision.” 

The artworks and designs that we create may comprise of 

design aspects like line, shape, colour as well as harmony, 

proportion and contrast. All this and more, is what we have 

named elements and principles of design. In Lidwell et al.'s 

(2010, 12) Universal principles of design–Introduction; they 

broadly referred to principles as “laws, guidelines, human 

biases and general design disciplines.” 

Hence, elements and principles of design are compared to 

parts from which a design can be composed. Leland (1998, 

123) suggests, “... with a design based on sound guidelines 

and for good design, use the elements and principles 

of design as guidelines. Memorise them and use them 

consciously.” That is to say, they are specifically used as 

benchmarks that determine a full artwork quality. 

Fichner (2007) prefers a different argument on the subject 

of “principles of design.” They are “visual strategies” while 

elements of design are stipulated “for expressing purpose.” 

In the midst of that, principles of design are regarded as a 

basis of conduct, which establish success of a formed up 

design or plan. 

And elements of design are used for enhancing the artwork 

or a design. They include texture, line, shape, form, tone, 

shade, value, dots, colour and space (size), mass, solids et 

cetera. 

Among principles of design we find balance, rhythm, 

dominance, proportion, contrast, movement, unity, perspective 

and harmony. 

Artists vigilantly contemplate ways of using elements and 

principles of design for the time of executing a design or 

a planned artwork. Above all, the lists of elements and 

principles of design mentioned above do not account 

for the whole lot about them; “They are obviously many.” 

(Lidwell et al. 2010, 12) As a result, a lot more can be added 

on any list created after investigating about them. Michael 

et al. (2007, 190) state, “every good design is different from 

every other good design and all artists have unique ways of 

using the elements and principles ...” 

This tells us that even creative artists have special ways, 

which they use to embark on each design plan by using 

elements and principles of design. 

In a Guide article from About.com, Esaak (2010) writes, 

“elements and principles of design are sort of atoms, 

which serve as building blocks” for holding up the process 

of executing successful artworks or designs. They are 

compared to other academic disciplines such as chemistry 

where atoms combine to form other things. As an example 

“atoms, casually make simple molecules of hydrogen and 

oxygen to form water ( H O 

2 ). If hydrogen and oxygen take a 

more aggressive career path to bring carbon as a co-worker, 

together they may form something more complex like a 

molecule of sucrose ( C H O 

12 22 11 ).” 

For this reason, as creative artists, we cannot tell apart what 

we learn from the co-ordinating units of science and how it 

establishes a beneficial collaboration with art and designs 

to create useful things. 

Apart from that, “mathematicians” use “algorithm” as a “set 

of rules for solving problems in a limited number of steps.” 

(Esaak, 2010) Distinctly, then, in various creative ways artists 

especially learners should be encouraged to find solutions 

and procedures that operate within a particular design or 

artworks by using elements and principles of design. 

Esaak (2010) continues to enlighten us with another 

eventual remark: “botanists say rosa rugosa” instead of 

using the much longer word or statement “old-fashioned 

shrub rose that leaves hips in the fall-with five-petalled 

flowers that can be yellow, white, red or pink.” As a contrast 

and comparison, artists yearn for elements and principles 

of designs as a means of giving their entire practical 

understanding of a subject; by using expressive images or 

icons instead of explaining the absolute view of reality with 

logical consequences of words. 

In general, artists are different. Thus, they use meanings 

of each element and principle of design not the same as 

another. Even though, elements and principles of design 

are considered to be “the basic ingredients all artists use to 

create their work and they are what we notice when we look 

at paintings, sculptures, buildings, crafts and commercial 

designs” Gerald et al (1977, 54) notes. 

20 21

Elements of design 

A closer look at elements of design provides a general 

view of the exact meanings for what they may represent. 

Elements of design are an amusement of our daily 

life. Michael et al (2007, 184) suggest, “Those who have 

attempted to isolate the elements of design for definition 

have reached only partial agreement.” 

Nevertheless, nearly all agree that the elements of design 

include line, shape, colour, texture and space et cetera.” 

Aiming at acquiring knowledge of how to use elements of 

design allows designers to examine art in a critical way. In 

other words, creative artists are able to compose, appreciate 

art, write and chat about art. 

Here is how we can discuss about them: 

Form is usually three-dimensional. It has height, width 

and thickness. Michael et al (2007, 184) say, form is “the 

underlying structure or composition in a work of art.” 

Creative designers or artists use form to represent three 

dimensional artworks on flat surfaces. 

Form can be quickly attained by using general shapes found 

in a cone, cylinder, sphere, pyramid and cube. “Also, some 

geometric forms are found in nature. For example, honey 

combs and sea shells.” Michael et al (2007, 186) say. 

Shape is an element of design, which is artistically 

represented as an outline or external appearance of an 

object. It is sometimes difficult to see shape, which is why 

learners confuse its make-up with form. Some shapes are 

geometric or regular while others are organic or irregular. 

Remember, shape can only be formed when two points fully 

connect. 

For instance, in geometry a square is regular and each of its 

four equal angles measure 90 degrees, when they are fully 

linked. That is how we start calling it a shape. 

Trevallion et al (2003, 16) add, “Smooth, unbroken lines give 

a longer slimming effect,” necessary for geometric shapes. 

In other words, if a designer makes a sketch of a line for a 

shape of a justified image, without the lines connecting 

completely or “joining.” The generated construction cannot 

be considered a shape, but its resemblance. Try out a sketch 

of a circle, but do not join the bounding lines. What will that 

shape be? Artists and designers use various types of shapes. 

They include: 

• Abstract shapes 

• Organic or irregular shapes 

• Geometric or regular shapes 

a) Abstract shapes 

These are shapes with round corners. They seek to achieve 

effect and visual structure by using forms, colours and 

textures. Ashwin (1982, 100) adds, “Abstraction” of shapes 

“is the process of 'drawing-out' ... the word 'abstraction' 

is derived from “the Latin word abs-tracta” (draw out). 

Distinctly, then, artists or designers use abstract shapes to 

generate conceptual simplicity of a design, which may later 

form a logo. And distinct innovative and creative designs. 

b) Organic or irregular shapes 

These are easy to create by drawing objects from nature. 

For example plants, rocks, animals, clouds, et cetera. They 

“tend to have curvilinear qualities that suggest growth and 

movement” (Fichner 2007, 53). Organic shapes are ordinarily 

irregular hence making it possible—to pleasantly draw 

them. And they are easy to transform into beautiful designs. 

Organic shapes control a big proportion of our ordinary 

design creations. 

c) Geometric shapes 

These consist of regular shapes. Geometric shapes are 

usually man-made. They can appear with straight lines and 

regular lines. Creative artists who use geometric shapes 

prefer simple forms obtained from basic shapes; they make 

attractive graphics. 

22 23

A female body 

illustrated with 

contour lines 

Geometric shapes do not result from natural processes such 

as birth, although they are mainly created by human beings. 

That is to say, such shapes largely exist as non-living things. 

For example a house, a table, a computer, a box and a book. 

It is obvious that geometric shapes do not often result 

into moderate artworks and designs, or they are not easy 

to precisely sketch by young learners of art and design. 

Jenkins (1980, 119) offers her advice with this explanation: 

“children need to be encouraged to draw things in their 

own way, as they see and understand them.” 

On the other hand, geometric shapes create pleasant 

decorative designs that are based on regular lines, angles 

and curves such as those we find on measured geometric 

forms. “The cube, pyramid and sphere are the three 

dimensional equivalents of the geometric square, triangle 

and circle.” (Michael et al 2007, 186) 

Among geometrical shapes, circles are the only ones with 

round planes; they are made up of a consistent curvature. 

The lines of a circle convey less tension than for a rectangle. 

Yet, circular shapes are mostly considered tuneful and 

boundless. 

Line is defined as a long mark. In art and design, the 

meaning varies. Some designers explain line as a pattern 

created by a series of dots or a mark made on a surface to 

join two or more points. Michael et al (2007, 185) explain, 

“Line is a path traced by a moving point.” 

Also, in both science and art, line is understood as a path 

of a point moving in space. Gombrich (1950, 445) argues, 

“Line is one of the elements of design commonly used in 

Chinese’s paintings.” He continues to say, “Line can be felt as 

a controlling presence on a hard profile.”This tells us that, in 

art and design a line can be used to pronounce a shape of 

an object. 

Types of lines 

There are very many kinds of lines which designers or artists 

put to use without noticing. Ashwin (1982, 184) asserts, 

“depending upon the nature of the medium ... ability and 

intention of the artist, the resulting line may be broad or 

narrow, fine or coarse, heavy or light, short or long, constant 

or viable.” Here we see that nearly all subject matter 

concerning art and design involves the application of a line 

along with basics of imagination and creativity. Writing and 

drawing is a good case in point. 

Here is a review of some types of lines: 

Horizontal line Zigzag line 

Dashed line Wavy line 

Diagonal line Parallel line 

Straight line Perpendicular line 

Curved line Outline and dotted line 

Uses of lines 

In Silvester's (2000, 5) speed and motion: “every artist has to 

work with great rapidity in order to retain ... continuity of 

the lines, without which the results would be disappointing.” 

Obviously, then, line is a very important element of design. 

It reveals movement and activity in all our creative designs. 

Thus, Picasso depicted distinctive uses of lines in his 

paintings of The Weeping Woman and the Guernica. 

To a large extent, we can judge the artists’ creative 

expressions by putting together different ways lines were 

set to execute a particular design. 

Here is a brief analysis about uses of lines: 

• Lines are used to mould shapes. 

• Different kinds of lines can be used to generate a 

sketch. 

• Lines can be used to convey texture and shades. 

• A line can reveal areas of emphasis on a design. 

• Lines determine shapes. 

Dots are small round spots or marks. They are elements of 

design. And, they exist in different forms colour or texture 

on various surfaces. Lupton et al (2008, 186) offer a rational 

explanation: “Dots and stripes interact to form grids.” 

24 25

Inset: halftone 

dots obtained 

from a section 

of smooth 

tones on a 

shoe surface. 

Here are some other ways dots can be used: 

• Dots can be used to create a line 

• Different sizes of dots can project movement 

• Dot-strokes can form textures in visual direction 

• Dots can also be used to depict distance within a 

perspective. 

How newspapers use dots 

A closer look at newspaper photographs reveals a range of 

shades made up of combinations of black or coloured dots. 

In the dark areas, dots are large and they are combined that 

almost none of the white paper shows through. In lighter 

areas of a photograph dots are tiny and they are surrounded 

by large expanses of white. 

The continuously varying shades of colour dots in a 

photograph convert into a pattern of different-sizes (of 

dots) with a method known as halftone. Most newspapers 

use a fairly loose texture of dots to reproduce pictures on 

standard newsprint paper. 

If dots are seen from a (monitor) screen, it may portray them 

in 2 to 3 lines per millimetre and when it comes out of the 

printer the attained results will show the same number of 

dots per millimetre. 

The whole idea about dots and the way they form 

photographs is almost identical to what is known as dpi 

(dot per inch)—induced by scanners and printers. 

Dpi defines the levels of intensity, sharpness—from a computer-procreated 

image. Certainly, the display screen 

measures the number of pixels across and down; to 

represent the actual resulting effect by using dots. 

Mass, Volume and Space 

These are elements of three dimensional art and design 

such as sculpture. In Mujjuzi's (2010, 113) article about 

Exploration of organic materials for sculpture production, he 

explains how “... ring wires, binding wires and wire mesh” 

can be used to generate “a solid body with mass and 

volume” for a three dimensional shape from plant materials. 

Distinctly, then, volume gives the impression of height, 

length, width and depth on three dimensional forms. Wood 

or stone disclose mass because they exist in solid form, 

while a snail shell appears as space volume. 

Michael et al (2007, 186) are more enlightening: “Mass refers 

to volume or bulk of an object in a work of art and space 

refers to the areas surrounded by mass.” Surely, a creative 

artist can use the perception of form to create three-dimensional 

objects on two-dimensional surfaces by using 

shadows or tones. 

Space is an important element of art and design. Two 

dimensional artists mainly refer to real white space as 

breathing-space. Such space is predominantly used on 

lay-outs. Space reveals depth in a receding background. In 

Trevallion et al.'s (2003, 18) Design and Technology; “Space is 

an element, which when arranged according to the design 

principles creates unity.” It also helps other aspects in a 

design to exist. 

Types of spaces 

Creative artists execute artworks from more than two 

types of spaces. Landa (2000, 76) believes, “Understanding 

positive and negative space is crucial to designing ...” Here 

are some of the ways in which negative and positive space 

can provide scope for creative designers to execute design 

artworks: 

a) Negative space produces a silhouette of a contrasting 

image. That is to say, a negative space is the 

unoccupied area. It lies within the inhabited shapes of 

spaces. 

b) Positive space is usually found in areas that are 

occupied by an image. It dominates our sense of 

sight on a design. On three-dimensional artworks like 

sculpture, positive spaces functions together with 

negative spaces to cause a worthwhile display of forms. 

26 27

Texture is the roughness and smoothness of a surface. And 

Value is an element of art and design, which is associated 

it is also made up of other surface qualities known as visual 

with proportionate lightness or darkness of colours. Michael 

and tactile textures. 

et al. (2007, 186) define value as “... the degree of darkness or 

Texture is an element of design, which can be used to 

lightness of a hue—the lighter a colour, the higher its value; 

describe “qualities of surfaces” (Michael et al 2007, 189). The 

the darker the colour, the lower its value.” In other words, 

surface may be rough, smooth, hard, soft, shiny and dull. In 

graphic artists and painters create value by mixing a hue of 

other words, creative artists use texture to depict variety 

black to make a shade, or white to obtain a tint. Whereby, 

in a design of a desired artwork; they make attempts of 

the value of black shows colours of less intensity and white 

imitating surfaces by decorating artworks and designs with 

value appears as enhanced. 

texture. 

Value is one of the basic qualities of Rembrandt's 

Types of texture 

“chiaroscuro” paintings. Moreover, chiaroscuro is a word 

As Trevallion et al (2003) have remarked; “Texture can be 

that comes from two Italians words; chiaro to mean light 

seen with the eye or felt by touch.” Accordingly, texture can 

and scuro—referring to dark. In a different way, we need to 

be singled out by touch and by sight on various surfaces. 

be mindful of Jung's Seeing colour (2004, 37) that “black and 

Here is how: 

white are not intended as colours, rather their black and 

white are representative of the presence or absence of light 

a) Tactile texture (actual-3D); artists experience this type 

or colour.” That is why, different from one another, artists 

of texture by touching the surfaces directly with hands, 

propose “black and white are not colours.” 

or by the body—making contact with an object. This 

type of texture is real. 

“Colour is a powerful element” of design Michael et al. 

(2007, 189) note. It differs from one grade to another on 

b) Visual texture is sometimes referred to as implied 

various surface adaptations. 

texture. It is effortlessly realised by our sense of sight. 

Jung (2004, 80) asserts, “light plays on objects; this renders 

Fichner-Rathus (2007) adds, “the actual texture of a 

them visible and reveals their colour.” Clearly, then, we 

stone sculpture may be hard ... cold to the touch, for 

become aware of colour because of light. That is to say, 

example, but the stone can be used to create the 

where there is darkness (or black). It is not possible to see 

illusion of flesh, soft and warm” textures. Consequently, 

visual texture can be created on two-dimensional 

surfaces by using colours and values of patterns, which 

may imply a smooth or rough surface by sketching with 

a pencil or pen. 

Uses of texture 

As we have already discussed some importance of texture— 

how it manifests on objects and designs in different ways. 

Here are some uses of texture: 

colour. In contrast, the powder colours or “pigmentary 

colours are derived from a non-specifiable number of 

powders which are found naturally or chemically produced 

and which are ground coarsely or finely.” (Jung 2004, 105) 

Thus, the colouring matter of pigments that we use as 

designers during painting and printing are known as 

pigments. They are from mixtures of subtractive colours. 

Other basic colour harmonies are created from 

complementary colours. These face directly—opposite each 

• Texture can be used to show distance in a design. 

other on a colour wheel. Eiseman (2003, 3) informs us that 

• Texture can be used to express the true quality of 

“green is never greener than when it is positioned next to 

a shape by using varied intensities of dull or soft 

red.” Obviously, then, if green and red colours are painted 

patterns on individual parts. 

adjacently, or if they are positioned near each other, they 

• Texture can be used to suggest as a desirable 

meaning in a work of art. In some sculpture 

themes, rough texture conveys aggression or 

agitation. 

react with a glow or a luminous gleam. 

Whereas, by painting a picture in varying tones of only 

one colour, the end results of the artwork shall indicate 

monochrome colours. 

28 29

Jung (2004, 139) remarks, “Of course a colour can stand on 

its own as well ... Such colour contexts ... are know from 

monochrome painting.” 

Then again, as we continue to study about colours, on a 

colour wheel, we will find harmonious colours that are 

also known as analogous colours; usually, such colours are 

positioned beside each other, for instance blue, blue-green, 

blue violet. And they are pleasant to look at because they 

appear as if they belong in the same family. 

Artists become acquainted with colours when they devote 

attention—to interacting with a colour wheel. It works as 

a guide, which helps creative artists to understand colours 

and how they relate to one another. 

In accordance with Michael et al.'s (2006, 187-188) remark, 

“the purpose of a colour wheel is to expand students 

understanding of colour relationships and to assist them in 

developing skills of painting and drawing with colours.” That 

is to say, by understanding the principles of a colour wheel, 

the learner shall be able to develop skills of painting and he 

or she will discover the absolute importance of using each 

colour. 

On a colour wheel learners can annotate the differences 

between each colour. Jenkins (1980, 142) asserts, “Encourage 

young children to name colours. Enjoy with them the 

delight in discovering that blue and red make purple, red 

and yellow make orange, red and white make pink, black 

and white make grey and red, yellow and blue make brown.” 

We can conclude from this that, a colour wheel is necessary 

for enthusiastic creative artists 

for the time of mixing colours; 

from dry powdered mixes of oil 

paints, watercolour, colouring dyes and inks or any another 

medium consisting (paint) pigment. 

Accordingly, we can use a colour wheel to identify different 

essential colours from their separate groups. For instance: 

1. Primary colours cannot be obtained by mixing any 

other colours although all other colours can be made or 

mixed out of them. They include red, blue and yellow. 

2. Secondary colours are created by mixing two primary 

colours: For example, by mixing blue and red. The 

resulting colour will be purple. 

3. Intermediate (tertiary) colours are made with equal 

mixtures of primary colours, added with—either one 

secondary colour adjacent—on a colour wheel. Such 

colours result from a mix of two secondary colours. 

“Mixing primary and secondary colours may be more 

difficult for children to achieve.” Thus, they should be 

advised to make a review of each colour group before 

choosing a colour for any design plan. Equally, “blues 

and greens are usually identified as cool and receding 

colours. The movement forward or backward of any 

colour, however, depends entirely on its relationship to 

the surrounding hues.” (Michael et al 2007, 188) 

Systems of colour 

There are two major systems of colour; subtractive and 

additive. Here is a review about each colour: 

a) Subtractive colours are to a certain extent common 

within the art and design world. Bellamy (2004, 14) 

laments, “... as more subtractive hues are mixed, the 

mix becomes darker ... colours seen on the surface 

of physical objects, such as paper, work in different 

ways to those seen in light.” By their correct names, 

subtractive primary colours include cyan, magenta and 

yellow. See Computer aided printing, Chapter Five. 

b) Additive colours apply to radiant (white) light made 

by sunlight. Jung (2004, 97) defines additive colours as 

“optical.” In his explanations, “the additive mixing of the 

three optical primary colours—produces the sensation 

of colourless light.” The list of such colours contains 

“blue yellow and red.” 

30 31

Subtractive colours (paint) Additive colours (light) 

Uses of colours and their symbolism 

Colours are used to represent various meaningful 

design attributes as well as learning theories in so many 

remarkable ways. According to Cheshire (2006, 26), 

“scientists have shown that yellow, orange and red can 

make people feel hungry. Meanwhile, blues and purples 

can turn people away from eating.” In “buffet restaurants,” 

blue colouring is used on walls in an attempt to reduce food 

quantities eaten, as a means of saving “money.” 

In other words, colour can cause good and bad disruptions. 

Without colour it would be strenuous to learn about 

people's customs. 

Take an example of seeing a person in your community 

dressed up in full white attire, or black ministering at a 

worship gathering. Or, out of the ordinary, seeing a person 

dressed up in a white outfit providing care to accident and 

victims of a natural disaster. Who would that person be? 

Here is how Eiseman (2003) explains colour uses: 

• Colour connects peoples' ways of life. For instance, 

red colours are viewed as engaging, active and 

exciting, while the blues and greens are believed to 

be gentle, calm and passive. 

• Colour can be used to describe a shape. 

• Colour can as well make false impressions of depth 

in space by using tints. 

Lidwell et al. (2010, 48) has a good conclusion about 

colour and symbolism: “There is no substantive evidence 

supporting general effects of colour on emotion or mood. 

Similarly, there is no universal symbolism for different 

colours—different cultures attach different meanings to 

colours. Therefore, verify the meaning of colours and colour 

combinations for particular target audiences prior to use.” 

A brief analysis about colours can be seen from Rohrer 

(2010) in the online article, Incredible Art Department; it 

discusses different kinds of colours and what they may 

symbolise as the table here below suggests: 

32 33 

Yellow 

Blue 

Red 

This colour can be used to endorse daylight, 

jubilation, cheerful, humanity, brain power, 

treasure, assurance, growth, cowardice, sickness 

in isolation, risk, fraud, faulty, desire, starve, 

communal. Cheshire (2006, 27) reminds us 

“... yellow describes a coward” with regard to 

humans. Thus, “... we associate its characteristics 

with moods and emotions.” 

Is a colour known for maleness, calm, trust, wet, 

frozen water, allegiance, reliable, washed, globe, 

high-tech, unhappiness, sky, smartness, duty, 

decency, law and order, union, balance and quiet. 

In many worshipping cultures, blue is a very 

significant colour. Some designers presume 

that blue can provide relief for those who are 

suffering. In Eiseman's (2003, 77) The colour 

answer book: Blue “colour has always been 

significant in religious symbolism.” 

Is a colour, which may be used to attain desired 

meanings for circumstances like toughness, 

life, flames, love, management, ability, hazard, 

lifeblood, warfare, temper, rebellion, sexual, joy, 

swiftness, warm, self-important, determination, 

extremist, hostile, stop and esteem. 

In other words, red is classified as warm, shouting 

and aggressive. It is probably the reason as to 

why we commonly find it on the International 

Movement of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent. 

In agreement with Lawrence's (2010, 157) remarks, 

“the reassuring Red Cross was ... nevertheless, a 

colour often associated to something malign.” 

This tells us that red colour can still be used to 

represent scathing situations in a design if the 

creative artist wanted to represent a hurtful 

experience. 

Rohrer (2010) offers another reasonable explanation about 

colour meanings on traffic lights: “Red to mean stop. Yellow 

indicates caution, attentiveness, alertness and Green signifies 

go.” We can conclude from this that colour is influential to 

our aesthetic world and the society in general as creative 

artists. It can be used to present combinations of identities, 

communications as well as societal interpretations.

Principles of design 

Principles of design enable artists to organise and arrange 

compositions of artworks in aesthetically pleasing ways. 

Jirousek (1995) defines, “principles as concepts used to 

organise or arrange the structural elements of a design.” 

Here is a brief analysis of how principles of design can be 

cleverly put to use by creative artists: 

Contrast is a principle of design used to create differences 

between tones, colours, texture, images—within a work of 

art. Bellamy (2004, 52) is more enlightening: “A design using 

full chroma colours will have emphasis on hue contrast, 

where as weak chroma throughout will neutralise contrast.” 

In Vincent van Gogh’s painting; Wheat fields with Ravens, 

high contrasts of yellow were used to bring forward wheat 

fields in an easily noticeable way against a dark blue sky. 

Emphasis is a principle of design used by creative artists 

or designers in their art works to indicate parts of a design, 

which—express exceptional importance. It can be done 

by using colours, shapes, textures as well as other basic 

elements of design to make a particular section of the 

artwork noticeable or prominent. 

Occasionally, emphasis happens in an area chosen to reveal 

a centre of interest or a focus point of a successful design. 

Perspective is a point of view that appears—to enlarge 

or extend from the actual size into space. It is the optical 

illusion/effect of distance—in the right impressions of 

height, width and depth. 

Other creative artists explain perspective as an angle of 

vision depicting foreshortening. Ashwin (1982, 184) notes, 

“Fore shortening” is the “optical shortening of forms when 

viewed end on.” Hence, the closer you get towards the 

object, the greater the effect of the angle of vision during 

foreshortening. Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last supper. It 

shows perspective using converging lines on Christ. 

Artistic objects depicting perspective appear in such a way 

that—from the position of view, objects appear large and 

they disappear—turn into small and smaller delineations 

as they recede from the viewer’s eyes on a two dimensional 

surface. 

Ashwin (1982, 97) asserts, “our ability to interpret and 

appreciate foreshortened drawings is to some extent 

dependent upon the circumstances of a prevailing ground 

... ” Obviously, then, creative artists or learners should be 

encouraged to rely on existing ground level to successfully 

draw and achieve depth on flat surfaces by using 

perspective in the following ways: 

a. Standpoint is a perspective, which operates properly 

with linear. Digolo & Mazrui (1988, 23) assert, “in 

linear perspective, the objects in the foreground are 

drawn bigger and distinct ... in the middle ground, 

objects become smaller and less distinct while ... in 

the background” they get “smaller and only faintly 

suggested.” That is to say, to sketch a standpoint 

perspective. It is important to rely on parallel lines 

converging to a single vanishing point of an object. 

b. Birds-eye/view is a level of perspective that is 

translated as a general view seen from above. “Looking 

down ward” (Lidwell et al. 2010, 39). 

Bird’s eye is also referred to as a three-point 

perspective. This type of perspective is typical for 

portraying maps and landscapes. To sketch birds view 

scenes creative artists make use of high grounds. 

Tables showing 

various 

inclinations of 

perspective 

34 35

c. Frog view is a type of perspective where images or 

objects appear as—from bottom or ground as large 

and smaller at the top—further up. Lidwell et al 

(2010, 39) prefer a different explanation for frog view 

perspective: it is a “worms-eye view (looking upward).” 

Sketching from a slanted mirror can successfully guide 

the creative artist to easily attain pictures of frog view 

perspective. 

d. Side view perspective is ordinarily depicted from a 

single side—of an object, or it is seen from one side. 

Pentak & Lauer (2008, 216) explain, “The Egyptians 

solved this problem by combining a side view of the 

head with a front view of the eye.” From this we can 

understand that side view perspective is at some point 

portrayed with one or two views on either left or right 

side on two-dimensional surfaces. 

Balance is a principle of design, necessary for composing 

visual weight in an artwork or design. Michael et al (2007, 

268) observe, “In terms of balance ... the art object must 

express the artist's intelligent decisions.” Indeed, through 

balance creative artists attain stability of objects in their 

designs. Also, balance makes artistic designs to appear firm 

in correct proportions. 

Types of balance 

Ultimately, creative artists can effortlessly achieve balance in 

a design by using arrangement aspects like symmetry, radial, 

asymmetrical as well as approximates. In Lidwell et al.'s (2010, 

94) Fibonacci Sequence; “such ... are considered aesthetic 

because people tend to find them more aesthetic ...” 

Here is a brief analysis about each one of them: 

a. Symmetrical balance (formal) is sometimes described 

as passive balance. For the reason that it contains an 

imaginary central vertical line also known as the axis. 

Symmetrical balances display an uncommunicative line 

that divides artistic arrangements in two proportional 

parts. It is a characteristic of almost all nature objects. 

For example mammals, birds and some types on leaves 

as well as insects. 

Lidwell et al (2010, 144) inform us “symmetrical 

compositions are perceived as simpler and more 

stable.” Yet, such designs are less interesting. 

b. Asymmetrical balance is also referred to as informal 

balance or active balance. This type of balance can be 

made to happen by arranging contrasting objects of 

equal visual weight. Try to take notice of a person who 

is standing straight with one hand holding a heavy bag. 

The side with great weight will stoop (bend). 

c. Radial balance displays all design aspects—starting 

from a centre point and then spreads them towards the 

(circumference) enclosing boundary in a composition 

or a design. Lidwell et al (2010, 34) remark, “people and 

things with round features are ... perceived as helpless, 

honest and innocent.” Remarkably, radial balance is also 

a feature of the natural world. See shapes of flowers. 

d. Approximate symmetry consists of necessary appeals 

required by most designers and artists. Some of the 

compositions attained with approximate symmetry 

display two portions as not exactly the same. For 

example, with a closer look at the two pages of this 

book, as it faces you. The pages display a precise 

approximate symmetry. “Therefore, in many works of 

art, the symmetry is approximate rather than exact” 

Fichner-Rathus (2007) notes. 

Rhythm and movement happens by creating actions or 

visual intervals on distinguished elements of design like 

colour, shapes and texture. According to Michael et al. (2007, 

191), “artists use rhythm to give movement to the manner in 

which our eyes move over a work of art to control the pace 

at which our gaze travels” in harmonious sequences. 

Tea time. 

A still life artwork 

arranged in 

a stable— 

balanced 

compositional 

way 

36 37

Play. 

A painting with 

proposing actions 

of rhythm and 

movement 

Size: 25cm × 30cm 

Doodling artists mainly use rhythm to draw befittingly. 

Ashwin (1982, 81) discerns this point: “Doodling consists of 

more or less automatic drawing activities.” From this, we can 

understand that rhythm and movement can be achieved by 

making drawings or designs showing random lines for the 

time of sketching. 

At the final analysis about rhythm and movement, make 

a critical observation of a dancer enchanted or captivated 

with playing music to ascertain justified moments of 

expressing rhythm and movement. 

How to create movement in a design 

Creative artists progressively attain movement in a work of 

art by using different methods. 

Here is a table put forward by Bernard (2010) in his book 

about The principle of movement: 

By using 

actions 

Using 

dominance 

Movement can be created by indicating 

actions in a design. Actions include running, 

walking as well as performing. 

Creative artists use actions that display 

charming gestures, not static/doing nothing. 

That is to say, with-out actions, designs appear 

less desirable. 

Artists especially painters use dominance 

to render monotony. This also makes some 

aspects of a design to appear in supremacy 

over others. 

Try this dominance test: cover your face with 

both—backsides of your two hands and then 

peep through the thumbs' space with one 

eye. Ask friends to say what they can see, by 

relating their assertion to dominance. 

By repetition 

By creating 

rhythm 

Movement happens in a design that contains 

repeating actions of colours, shapes, spaces, 

lines and sometimes with textures. Too much 

repeated occurrences in a design must be 

done with careful controls to avoid monotony. 

Regular use of movement causes harmonious 

sequences in a design. For example, by using 

similar shapes, a design may indicate frequent 

variations of regularly recurring series of patterns 

or elements. Artworks embraced with rhythm 

can easily be incorporated with charming 

gestures that are artistically planned. For 

example on motifs designed to construct 

repeat patterns. 

How to create dominance in a design 

After making a careful analysis of the basic design aspects 

in the table display concerning various ways of creating 

movement in a design, here is another look at how 

dominance can be used in a design: 

• By using contrasts of large forms with small ones 

to add interest. 

• Working with thick lines against delicate lines to 

achieve outright intensity and depth. 

• Engaging bright colours against few dull colours to 

control monotony. 

• Making groups of important parts in a design or 

composition to stand out. 

• Using elements of design, which are less expected 

in a design or artwork. 

Proportion is a principle of design used for describing scale 

and its consistent relationship of sizes on objects, or parts of 

the body. A design indicating proportion shall display parts 

or shapes corresponding—in agreement with the whole. 

On layouts, proportions can be attained with appropriate 

arrangements of texts against illustrations and during 

sketching of human figures, proportion accounts for correct 

balance or harmony of body parts—their measurements 

and characteristics. For instance on normal humans, if a 

nose or ears do not have a close similarity to match or agree 

in their exact manifestations of actual sizes. Then, those 

parts are out of proportion. 

38 39

However, different creative artists and designers go 

beyond some official recommendations of size and actual 

dimensions. That is to say, during cartoon creation and 

sketching of abstract art. Artworks and designs are feasibly 

created by “exaggerating proportions.” (Taylor 2005, 31) 

In Padovan's (1999) Proportion: science, philosophy, 

architecture; “... once we appreciate this intimate connection 

between proportion and scale, the central importance of 

proportion in design becomes apparent.” Here we see that 

proportion is essential in art and design as well as other 

fields of design. 

A case in point, Leonardo da Vinci found proportion 

everywhere not only in numbers and measurements but 

also in sounds, weight and intervals of time. 

Harmony is a principle of design that forms a compatibility 

of arrangements, which result into pleasing relationships. 

Pentak & Lauer (2008, 289) define “harmony” as “the pleasing 

combination of parts that make up a whole combination.” 

This also tells us that whenever a design or artwork shows 

effective corresponding placements—it has attained visual 

harmony. If an artwork or design has used harmony then it 

will have proper placements of existing objects. 

Unity is a state of forming a pleasing whole—of the design. 

Michael et al (2007, 192) say, “The three aspects of design 

that contribute to the unity of a work of art are the rhythms, 

the balances and the proportion ... ” As a consequence of 

this, it is possible to achieve unity in a design by selecting 

the right visual elements, which fit well with the appropriate 

principles and elements of design. 

How to create unity 

For this purpose a careful analysis and investigation 

of principles of design shows repetition—is the major 

principle necessary for creating unity. This is typical with 

flowers. 

Unity can also be creatively unveiled by using design 

attributes such as alignment, continuity, similarity, 

relationship and proximity et-cetera. 

We can study more about unity by using a table on the next 

page to analyse each relevancy as explained by Bernard's 

(2010) Lesson number 9; The principle of unity: 

40 41 

Alignment 

Variety 

Proximity 

Similarity 

Continuity 

Assists creative artists to position different 

design components (texts versus illustrations) 

in straight orderly arrangements. It guides 

a designer to find a desired arrangement of 

things according to relative importance. 

A good design embraces variety by putting 

together one or more elements of design, 

to generate interest. That is to say, too much 

unity without variety is boring and too much 

variation without unity is chaotic. 

Can be achieved by putting visual elements 

close to one another—they are perceived as 

being related or belonging together, those 

which are farther apart are considered less 

related. Graphic designers represent proximity 

by showing associated type near each other to 

fit in with a suitably composed layout. 

Presents unity by ways of repeating colours, 

shapes, value, textures and lines to form a 

visual relationship between elements. Pentak & 

Lauer (2008, 28) say, “the harmonious unity of 

the shapes” can creatively be “reinforced by a 

similarity of colour.” 

Brings about stability and consistence in 

a design. For example in graphic design 

continuity plays an important role of 

consolidating a brand manifestation by using 

a precise or identifiable colours, typefaces and 

layouts. Other elements of design which can 

cause the continuity in a design are line, form, 

colour and texture 

Ultimately, then, elements and principles of design should 

be put at utmost consideration in every task of the artist's 

design plan. 

Michael (2006, 185) reminds us, “When elements interact, 

they make up principles.” 

We can conclude from this that elements and principles of 

design account for various achievable goals of learning art 

and design. And indeed, history of art and art appreciation 

gives credence to elements and principles of design. They 

guide artists to discuss, conduct critiques as well as making 

research about art and design.

Exercise 

1. By associating each element of design to one principle 

of design, make a suitable sketch or image inside each 

space of a box provided by the table below, in your art 

book: 

Movement Emphasis Patterns Rhythm 

Line 

Shape 

Texture 

Dots 

Colour 

CHAPTER THREE 

Drawing 

Drawing is a two dimensional approach of executing 

representative artistic images or objects on a two-dimensional 

surface by ways of sketching—using a pencil, pen, 

chalk as well as a brush. 

It accounts for a number of courses relating to drawing. For 

instance still life, nature, portraits, as well as human figure 

drawing. 

In brief, the history of drawing starts from the human desire 

to depict—their surroundings in images. As it is evident, we 

have read many stories about prehistoric cave drawings and 

other artworks created by the early man. 

In terms of drawing visual artworks Micklewright (2005, 

154) mentions, “there are plenty of alternatives which can 

be used to gain basic visual skills. Plants, shells, bones, 

buildings, machines, still-life groups, dolls, landscapes and 

of course mirrors.” All these can “provide a source of visual 

analysis and discovery” for the learner—aiming at obtaining 

skills of drawing through critical observation. 

Individual and separate types of preliminary drawings can 

be sketched for use in various branches of industrial art 

and design courses like painting, sculpture, graphic design, 

weaving, jewellery making, pottery and mosaics along with 

other research-based themes of art, to fulfil specific learning 

aims and objectives. 

Art and design appraisers, assessors or examiners make use 

of drawing as a decisive factor to test devoted students at 

the trial stage—to draw or sketch what would be feasible 

within the limits of their individual skills. Hoover (1967) 

discerns this point: “The good drawing is one in which the 

child puts something of himself. It is an honest original idea 

of his/her own.” 

On the other hand, visiting museums, industries, workshops, 

galleries and art exhibitions are among the numerous ideal 

places from which creative artists can go to find sources of 

inspirations that may result into powerful drawings. 

Moreover, a great deal of drawing skills and techniques 

can successfully be put into active process by using basic 

foundation materials, tools and equipment of different 

kinds by individual creative artists. 

42 43

Here is how Jenkins (1980, 119) categorises drawing tools, 

surfaces and instruments: 

Nails, fingers, sticks, toothpick, straws, pencils, 

pens (quill, reed from bamboo, ball-point pen, 

Tools felt-tip), charcoal, pastel, chalk (brick clay, soap 

stone powder), crayons, inks (iron-gall, carbon, 

Indian or Chinese, bistre) feathers. 

Sand or (terra firma) ground, steamed mirrors, 

banana leaf surface, fogged window, packed clay 

Surfaces 

or soil, cloth, wood, aluminium foil, a sketch board, 

blackboard and a slate. 

Sheets and rolls of newsprint, paper plates and 

pad-sheets of blank papers fastened together at 

Papers one edge, sandpaper, wax paper, crepe paper, 

wrapping paper towels, tracing paper, graph 

paper, sketchbook and books. 

We also have to reassess Trowell's (1951, 10) contention; “... 

in some schools they cannot teach because they have no 

money to buy paints, brushes and paper.” 

This tells us that, as creative artists we can assent to 

low-end found objects that are easy to find from our local 

surrounding (around us) in order to execute pre planned 

drawings. Very many types of drawing materials are easy to 

obtain from our natural surroundings and they are a good 

starting point, where there is scarcity. 

Kyeyune (2003, 242) adds, “it is by working with found 

objects ... that art teaching will help to stimulate or explore 

human condition” before running to use those other 

well-liked and highly priced drawing materials. Because 

of that, learners should always be encouraged to discover 

new innovative methods of using local materials to produce 

powerful artworks. 

Here are some highlights of few drawing tools, materials 

and equipment: 

a) Drawing pencils are produced in categories and 

assortments of the most frequently requested grades 

such as hard or soft. They both consist of 9B, 8B, 7B, 6B, 

5B, 4B, 3B, 2B, B, HB, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H, 8H, 9H. 

Sometimes drawing pencils are produced in types like 

“designer 6B to 4H.” As well as “medium and technical B to 

9H” these “are hard.” (Elizabeth, 2010) 

B pencil Is the soft type. It makes strong lines 

H pencil Is the hardest. It makes lighter lines 

44 45 

H and HB 

pencils 

These are found in the middle range category 

Graphite drawing pencils can be used to accomplish nearly 

all types of drawing techniques and they can be used with 

different artistic media commonly known as mixed-media. 

Pencils are oftentimes used to draw, to add details of 

outlines, make crosshatching textual lines; with their big 

range of leads. In general, drawing pencils agreeably work 

well with mixed (dry) media of pastels and charcoal as well 

as wet media such as watercolour and ink washes. 

b) A sketchbook is an essential drawing support. It 

is made up of clean plain pages on which rough or 

unfinished drawings and sometimes paintings are 

planned or sketched. There is no specified size required 

for good sketchbooks. Yet, a sketchbook can be made 

from any plain clean types of papers, which may 

sometimes be thrown (away papers). 

Jenkins (1980, 129) remarks, “many artists and teachers 

feel that a child should start early to” plan compositions 

and colour schemes in “a sketchbook ... as a record 

of not only what he or she sees, but feels as well.” 

Undeniably, then, sketchbooks are essential for almost 

all artistic courses. Their fundamental purpose is to 

support the artist's creative process. 

c) A drawing board is a very important support device 

used by nearly all-outdoor drawing artists. A paper or a 

canvas can be spread and/or fastened on the surface of 

a drawing board to give comfort during drawing 

and for the time of executing a painting artwork. 

Drawing boards are most often rectangular—in 

makeup shapes fit for varying paper sizes. During 

drawing, the artist mounts a drawing board on an 

easel. Sizeable drawing boards can be made out 

of a hard paper or plywood. 

To a large extent, various kinds of drawing boards 

are made out of easy to carry materials such as 

hard paperboard. 

An easel. 

It is a 

necessary 

equipment 

for the time 

of drawing 

and painting

d) Charcoal is good and it is an abundant medium used 

for drawing. It can be found everywhere around us, 

especially from burnt wood or where bonfire has been 

extinguished. Its sizes and strength varies according to 

the type of burnt wood or sticks. In spite of that, today 

it is possible to buy some special types of charcoal from 

shops for sketching. 

e) Drawing-chalk is well distinguished from chalk 

used on chalkboards. It contains a binding material, 

which makes it stick fast on papers. Buser (2006, 156) 

says, “chalk can be rubbed and blended, it is very 

permanent—natural chalk makes soft, fuzzy lines ... not 

very dark and chalk lines have transparency.” 

Such drawing chalk is not meant for chalkboard use, 

because it is difficult or impossible to erase completely. 

On the other hand, chalk used for drawing is in general 

produced in very many types of colours. According to 

Buser (2006, 156) “... red, white and black chalks” can be 

made out of “earth and then cut into sticks. Warm red 

or blood red is derived from hematite (iron ore); natural 

black chalk is from shale and a mixture of clay and 

carbon.” Here we see that locally the learner can as well 

make his/her drawing chalk. Meanwhile, as the learning 

process continues to progress many more chalk types 

such as pastel chalk, pastel crayons and chalk crayons 

will add to your list of drawing tools and materials. 

In Constable's (1995, 41) The Painters Workshop: “As a 

material, pastel is to be distinguished from the harder 

chalk crayons, much used by artists for drawing, in 

which the pigment is mixed with an oil or wax and 

moulded into sticks. Confusion is apt to arise, since 

pastel is sometimes called crayon.” 

f) An eraser is a rubber or plastic substance used for 

rubbing away-unwanted pencil markings created on 

a paper during drawing. Nonetheless, very competent 

drawing artists mention directly that a rubber is 

impractical. “As a learner you are expected to adopt a 

problem solving approach.” (Digolo et al. 1988, 50) For 

the reason that unnecessary use of erasers may put an 

end to the learner's imminent skill, competence and 

creativity. Ashwin (1982, 89) notes, “many teachers of 

the old school used to forbid the use of the eraser on 

the principle that, drawing should be additive.” 

Obviously, then, using an eraser for a beginning artist may 

not be of any significant importance. Apart from describing 

the learner as a timid artists with low self-confidence. 

Drawing nature and still life 

The two areas of drawing; nature and still life necessitate 

different approaches intend to convey a successful artistic 

work or design. Ssegantebuka (2003, 16) reminds us that 

“still life and nature studies should be visualised in terms of 

their forms, shape, texture and tonal values.” Clearly, then, 

drawing nature and still life must present learning aims like; 

acquiring skills of observation as well as learning to sketch 

contrasting shapes. 

Nature drawing regards the practical study of objects 

in the physical world. These may be living organisms 

and their environments—for example plants, animals, 

landscapes, human beings and very many other aspects of 

God's creations. Whereas, still life is depicted by sketching 

inanimate—not alive objects, which are for the most part 

known to be manmade. Occasionally, in drawing; nature 

and still life studies are combined. 

Some educationists propose that nearly all learners who 

draw nature shapes easily accomplish their drawing tasks 

for the reason that set objects or specimen are frequently 

remarked as irregular shapes. 

In Lidwell et al.'s (2010, 36) biophilia effect; “... children who 

experienced the greatest increase in nature views from their 

windows made the greatest gains in standard tests ... ” In 

other words, from nature study or studies, learners sketch 

more in a satisfactory way. 

Without going beyond the scope of our subject matter; 

from nature drawing learners have a greater potential 

of reinventing designs necessary for painting, 

making graphic design artworks and other 

useful study artworks. 

According to Wood (1994, 12), “Never attempt 

to draw such a perfect and neat specimen 

that it loses its naturalness. None of nature is 

“perfect,” and to draw it perfectly denies its 

inherent nature.” 

This tells us that during drawing, even with 

less, the artist can provide absolute interpretation 

or meaning of the subject matter required. 

Nature drawing 

arranged to 

show a filled up 

basket carrying 

bananas and eggs 

Materials: Pencil 

on A4 paper 

46 47

Still life 

drawing 

showing a cup 

positioned 

near a receding 

spoon and 

a plate. 


on A4 paper 

Thus, concentrate on reaching the goals of specified aims 

and objectives as well as the theme. 

In the meantime, nature drawings of detailed plants, fruits 

or flowers sketched from within or inside the classroom 

building, should be drawn quickly before they get dry and 

shrivelled. Some types of plants, leaves, or flowers become 

weary or get limped because of heat, after loosing water. 

For that reason, wrap a damp or a moist paper towel around 

the base of the plant—ending up—at its lower stem for the 

plant to live for some time. 

Still life drawing is sometimes strenuous to sketch by 

the majority of learners for the reason that set objects 

usually contain pronounced and unmistakable geometrical 

forms. Vebell et al (2005, 206) prefers a different argument: 

“Rendering the volume is much easier on still life if there 

is strong direct light on the subject.” Clearly, then, placing 

still life objects near light can effectively help learners to 

manage some strenuous problems of drawing still life. 

Kyeyune (2003, 80) laments, “in Trowels art education she 

did not promote drawing or painting still-life, “probably” 

because still life—based subjects lacked the capacity to 

insinuate images that dramatized rural life.” Painstakingly, 

a still life drawing should have groups of shapes necessary 

for emphasising composition and form within the 

arrangement—as a whole, to make it interesting during 

drawing. 

Apart from that, for the time of setting (arranging) tasks 

meant for still life drawing, arrangements of set objects can 

simultaneously be combined with other items—borrowed 

from nature drawing to affect function or set the scene 

towards the targets of provided planned learning 

aims. Distinct creative artists combine nature and 

still life to bring about contrasts. As an example; 

the artist can arrange an uprooted banana plant, 

(nature) placed side by side, with a garden 

tool (still life) in a story telling manner. Then, 

draw. 

According to Lidwell et al (2010, 230), “When 

story telling is successfully employed in a 

design, an audience will experience and recall 

the events—in a personal way.” This should be one of the 

approaches used to arrange still life drawing tasks. 

On the other hand, for all future time—a creative artist 

has got to keep a sketchbook and a pencil with him or her. 

Some profound ideas of drawing are not permanent, they 

come instantly and go. For example, finding a goat stealing 

food not well kept from a hole, which it has discovered on 

an old granary. Or, mother duck feeding her ducklings. 

It is as well important to consider, expression and freedom 

of working during drawing. This can effortlessly be achieved 

with a free hand drawing technique. Ashwin (1982, 102) 

remarks, “the method permits the artist to work at arm’s 

length, standing back from the drawing and obtaining a 

better view of the image as it develops.” 

For that reason, free hand is a very important skill for all 

artists to learn, owing to the fact that sketching large 

images on limited space of a provided surface shall be 

easy—by using artful lines or outlines of curves, bends and 

meanders to execute a drawing artwork. 

Landscapes 

Landscapes are closely connected with nature drawing and 

painting. They can be sketched easily from outdoor by using 

mental judgement in the manner of; the further you go the 

lighter the tones will become and the vice versa. 

It is as well necessary to understand that the source of light 

provides the underlying support, which determines the 

placement of dark and light tones in such scenery drawings. 

To choose a landscape spot necessary for executing a 

drawing artwork. It is essential to analyse or study the 

levels of darkness and light (value and contrast), from the 

foreground, middle ground and background of the area. 

In the opinion of Sullivan (2004, 231), “... as landscape 

elements recede into the background they become lighter. 

Embellish the foreground, middle ground and background 

with distinctive line weights.” The effects created by the 

degree of lightness and darkness between parts—on a 

landscape, can as well be achieved by using colours in 

different tones, textures, perspective and a focus point. That 

is to say, “things at a distance appear fuzzy and out of focus 

even to the sharpest eyes ...” Buser (2006, 120) notes. 

Therefore, observe and make a study of the most distinguishable 

features that you are able to see in the 

foreground, middle ground and at the background. 

48 49

A lakeside 

Background 

landscape 

showing three 

sections; the 

background, 

Middle ground 

middle ground 

and the 

foreground Foreground 

Accordingly, learners should be encouraged to draw a 

number of sketches with considerable emphasis laid on 

various outdoor scenes in order to improve their skills of 

drawing landscapes. 

Besides, the process of drawing landscapes—takes several 

days or hours to complete. Consequently, it is important to 

learn how to sketch quickly and catch the right moments; 

by representing parts which are worth the time. Identify 

a scenery, which will insinuate viewers. “People tend to 

prefer Savannah-like environments—open areas, scattered 

trees, water and uniform grassiness—to other natural 

environments.” (Lidwell et al. 2010, 212) 

To sum up, Sullivan (2004, 7) asserts, “Landscape drawing 

is not the reproduction of nature. It is an expression of 

the emotions, sensations and feelings that the landscape 

impresses on the artist.” Thus, we draw landscapes to 

“understand” them and to visualise them in a new way ...” As 

opposed to taking photographs. 

Drawing from imagination 

In the words of Dodson (2006, 6), “drawing with imagination 

takes a broad look at ... fantasy images. It can mean 

distorting, abstracting or simply doodling. And drawing 

from memory—involves making creative choices about the 

things you choose to draw.” That is to say, by drawing from 

memory the artist recalls some real images captured by the 

brain long-ago, some of them can be included in the sketch. 

Other than that, drawing from imagination has got a bearing 

on untrue or invention stories, which may be fictitious. 

The Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education, Regulations 

and Syllabuses, 2009 – 2012 (Uganda National Examinations 

Board, 2008, 223) is full of excellent expectations: It provides 

educative awareness and expectations to learners who take 

on tasks concerning imaginative composition that they are 

supposed “to discover and effectively portray visually, in 

pictorial form the true subject of the set topic.” Also, learners 

are expected to show they're understanding and “potentials 

of intelligent use of colour as an element of art.” 

Certainly, every one of us has for once drawn from 

imagination. In Jenkins (1980, 46) Imaginary Worlds, “... the 

child is encouraged to draw or paint the people, animals 

or plant life of an imaginary land ... initiated by verbal 

discussions ..., or a guided visualisation.” 

That is to say, having drawn from imagination—once upon 

a time, learners should as well be encouraged to continue 

making artworks of drawing and painting in a similar 

manner. Drawings made from imagination rather than 

observation can also be accomplished in the same way— 

from a feeling of certainty, perception and motivation about 

real life situations or from existing inspirational life styles 

with in our own surroundings. For example cartoons. 

In a simultaneous way, drawing from imagination 

can equally be done in abstract (art) approaches and 

procedures. It is from such challenges that learners will 

attain skills of testing their drawing abilities. Jenkins 

(1980, 46) concurs with a written matter of opinion. What 

If/Just Suppose Questions; “... what if insects were larger 

than people? Or cows were the size of cats? Or the sun 

shone all night? Or children were giants and parents were 

midgets?” Evidently then, learners will not be cheated of the 

opportunity to think creatively. 

In agreement with Ashwin (1982, 120) “imaginative drawing 

is concerned with making some kind of record from 

a situation,” such can be a cultural show, “events” you 

attended recently or “seen and experienced in the past.” 

We can conclude from this that drawing from imagination 

does not only refer to finding new options of representing 

fantasy artworks and designs. Since, “to imagine” in a literal 

manner “means to create a mental image.” (Ashwin 1982, 120) 

In essence, creative artists especially learners must be 

encouraged to compose and draw wonderful mental 

pictures which may be adequately needed for other artistic 

works like paintings, cartoons, illustrations and sculpture. 

50 51

Human figure drawing 

In the words of Bradley (2003, 144), “you do not always have 

to draw a figure as it is. You can only emphasise or adjust 

parts of ... your drawing.” Here we see that the intended 

aims of drawing human figure—for the learner should 

target acquiring skills of observation and evidence-based 

judgement. 

Most human figure models are routinely posed in nude, 

since “clothing complicates the figure.” (Vebell et al. 2005, 

203) In that way, learners are expected to observe and 

sketch the body structure of a human figure in a proper 

way. 

Ashwin (1982, 139-140) explains, “Drawing from the nude is 

a study of naked human figures—typically, for the subject 

of painting, sculpture as well as photography. Such themes 

have “... traditionally been regarded as the most demanding 

and most fruitful of artistic disciplines.” On the other hand, 

topics, or themes chosen for each drawing subject matter 

should be purposeful. 

Naive artists get it wrong when they concentrate—put a 

lot of attention to detail for the time of sketching a human 

figure, by indicating very perfect forms, tones, structure and 

detail. Just like a camera. 

Vebell et al. (2005, 179) assert, “The most important thing 

is to understand and simplify what you are seeing.” That is 

to say, likeness of a drawing is not too essential, other than 

subject matter. 

In practice, human figure drawings are sketched in the 

company of a live model posing in front of the artist—with 

precise direct observation. 

Pedretti (2004) alleges that in “Leonardo's formulation 

drawings of a woman's bust, he observed a basic principle 

of action motion” for human figure drawings, as a way of 

suggesting movement “... without changing position.” From 

this we can as well understand that the appointed model 

of a human figure drawing necessitate a pose that embrace 

some kind of movement. 

For the most part, actions of movement enhance 

exceptional expressions; to a pose and it adds variety, 

impression, direction and a sense of motion for a 

successfully composed sketch. Certainly, human figure 

drawing is probably the most difficult subject artists face. 

“Knowledge of anatomy will help you understand and 

simplify what you are seeing.” (Vebell et al. 2005, 179) 

In that way, learners should be encouraged to make use of a 

human skeleton as a visual reference of their self-structure. 

A skeleton reveals joint structures of the human body in 

their exact spots and if well understood, creative artists can 

easily make use of them to discover more about the actual 

human body and its movement of the various parts. 

During drawing, a human figure drawing can as well get 

painted with any colouring medium, for example ink or 

watercolours. Hence, creative artists will add to they're 

advancing skills and abilities of drawing and painting. 

Ultimately, then, human figure drawing can also be done by 

sketching parts separately. We can understand this from the 

Italian painter, scientist and engineer “Leonardo da Vinci, 

he devoted a great deal of time to what was very much 

a scientific pursuit” (Ashwin 1982, 223) when he executed 

pleasant sketches of detailed studies by dissecting and 

analysing the tiny details of the human body parts. 

Let us make a brief review on drawing a study and studies: 

• Studies are drawings done to display a detailed 

investigation of a theme or subject. In other words, 

the attained sketch is expected to display an 

analytical representation of a specimen in depth. 

Micklewright (2005, 144) argues, the creative artist 

may analyse “studies ... from a range of angles, to 

provide the three-dimensional information 

... needed to make the final” artwork. 

• And by drawing a study, the artist 

may use “an individual approach 

to compose the study” in 

reasonable solus (single) details...” 

(Micklewright 2005, 14) Hence, 

a single explored drawing or a 

sketch is enough to represent 

a theme for achievable 

learning objectives. 

In general, it is less easy to appoint 

a (human figure) model needed for 

executing certain drawing tasks— 

accompanied by the above mentioned; studies or in a study. 

The human 

figure drawing 

of a lady in a 

basic sitting pose. 


on A3 size paper. 

52 53

Vebell et al. (2005, 202) prefer a different argument: 

“copy from old masters or draw from photographs.” In a 

thorough manner, drawing from photographs fits well to 

experimental learners. And in situations where there is 

scarcity—finding difficulties in identifying the right model 

or a specimen needed for a drawing activity or task. 

Learners in school may be encouraged to work in small 

groups—pick two or three people to pose as volunteer 

models. Hence it is important to formulate decisions for the 

most appropriate pose, which will provide support to other 

artistic themes as sources of inspiration for new art and 

design projects. 

Ashwin (1982, 139-140) notes, “The greatest enemy of 

life drawing is habit” caused by opting for a particular 

general pose for a model. This may lead learners to—get 

frustrations and restlessness whenever a model moves or 

tries to change a pose. 

We can as well add this proposition as a conclusion that, 

befitting poses should be free from pain and not very 

complicated for a selected model. Apart from that, in a 

normal manner; the forms and structures of human figures 

are so different, the learner has got to study a lot about 

bones and muscles. 

According to ThirdWay (1985, 20) a Christian based 

magazine, “Models in most art schools, however are still 

predominantly female and where I have encountered 

students having ethical problems in working from the 

model, it has mostly been where male models are involved.” 

From here we can also say that proportions of a human 

body (in either seven or eight heads—tall) can not be easy 

to draw by learners particularly if the model is standing 

straight. 

For the time of sketching, make sure that the parts included 

on a human figure are treated with sincerity—depicting the 

likely gender and age group of the model. The viewer is not 

expected to ascertain the gender of a model from the face 

or cloths worn. That is to say, women have slender bodies, 

men have muscles and babies have improbable bodies. 

Finally, feasible aims and objectives of drawing humans 

should boundlessly be focused on composition, proportion, 

line, texture and sensation. 

Croquis 

'Croquis' comes from a French word rough sketch. 

Such sketches are for the most part done while the model is 

moving, changing possess or positions after a few minutes 

but not static—in a single pose. 

Sketches of croquis are for the most part unfinished, final 

results appear as sketchy lines without much obliged 

details. 

Creative artists routinely sketch croquis purposely for 

learning how to quickly capture the golden moments of a 

posture, as well as acquiring skills of using various drawing 

tools such as a brush, a pen or a pencil and ink in various 

techniques—on different surfaces. 

Ashwin (1982, 122) suggests another rational drawing 

material: “bistre a brownish-yellowish pigment” made from 

the “soot of burned wood.” It is produced “by boiling soot.” 

This type of ink can serve the same purpose—just as the 

genuine black inks. In spite of that, other creative artists mix 

ashes to acquire a soluble drawing material like ink. 

It is as well essential to brief learners about the following— 

examiner expectations on the subject of drawing human 

figure: 

• Balance the drawing on the paper space provided 

and it should be within the correct orientation, by 

the thoroughness of a singled out type of pose. 

• Understand the hidden meaning of the pose 

• The examiner is not interested in looking at your 

remarkable talent. Instead, he/she will check to 

find out how well intended learning outcomes 

were achieved in the activity. 

• Too much extra body details are less necessary 

and in this way, it is a waste of valuable time. As an 

example drawing details of the figure like the eyes, 

hair and fingers or nails as precise as possible. 

• Simply concentrate on the body structure and form 

in addition to other mentioned goals of the study 

such as achieving proportions, expressions and the 

pose, as well as using tone correctly; to appear in 

places where they deserve to be. 

• Pay more attention to the subject matter you are 

dealing with 

54 55

Rough sketches; 

studies of 

croquis in 

action series 

showing 

different poses. 

Materials: 

Pen, ink on A4 

size paper. 

• Investigate the source of light or direction of light 

by showing the relative amounts of light and 

shadows on the different visible parts. 

• Also, the environment or surroundings of a model 

is important. Artists represent such parts in various 

suggestive ways by using fading lines or tones. 

• Indicate the shadow on the ground for your 

artwork to appear firmly fixed on the ground. 

Most importantly, whenever a model is properly put to 

pose—as prejudged by a set task. Desist from touching 

it to avoid causing lack of concentration, anxiety and 

destruction. Ultimately, then, effective learning and use of 

study periods shall not be wasted. That is to say, respect 

the model. Let it be young or old, male or female, ugly or 

beautiful. 

How to pose a model 

Choosing a model depends on various specified aims, 

objectives and learning outcomes, which artists plan to 

achieve during a given period of the learning processes. 

Also see: Practical Justifications. 

Ssegantebuka (2003, 19) is more enlightening: “When a 

model is posed, different parts change and these changes 

are determined by the movement of muscles and the 

skeleton.” It is evident again that a skeleton is vital for 

helping learners to understand different ways body parts 

are placed with in a given pose and the arrangement of 

joints that he/she shall be able to clearly see and determine 

body proportions during drawing. 

Consequently, when a model is set right to a preferred pose 

it is essential to mark the different surface positions of the 

feet and hands with a chalk or any writing material so that; 

if the model gets back from a break or a period of rest, the 

original pose shall be realistically attained. 

The strategy also saves time. 

On average, a pose preferred must at least go up to 20 

minutes at a time. 

Depending on the level of energy, or age a model has. 

This is so because, sometimes people assigned to pose as 

models are less energetic; very old or too young. 

Nonetheless, if a chosen model is an infant. Sketch quickly. 

Young children are not able to sit and wait in one place for a 

long time without becoming irritated, or anxious. This may 

as well apply to the elderly. 

We can conclude with Vebell et al.'s (2005, 206) explanation 

that “capturing the gesture is vital for making your figure 

look alive.” This can be achieved by identifying a meaningful 

natural gesture for the model—to pose in a turn or a 

twist, leaning with a support of an object, laying down, 

sitting upright, or doing something other than standing at 

attention. 

How to draw animals 

As Albert (1991, 82) has suggested, “The zoo is not the only 

place an artist can study animals. You can invite wildlife into 

your back yard.” Even then, some animals are domesticated. 

But as a matter of precaution, drawing animals requires to 

seek guidance from a concerned person such as animal 

wardens or a laboratory technician. 

Some animals are savage and violent—they cannot be 

domesticated. Others are not good for human/skin contact. 

Thus, the artist is required to comply with some of these 

safety measures before dealing with a specified task of 

drawing an animal: 

• Where can the animal be found 

• Is the animal human friendly, predictable or 

hostile. 

• Find out if the size of the animal is astonishing, big 

or small. Then, identify a strategy in which you can 

achieve major learning aims. 

56 57

A study of a 

cow. 

In the profile 

view. 

Materials: 

Pencil on A3 

size paper 

• Conduct an inquiry to know the nearest access 

to medical assistance in case of harm (disease 

infections) caused by the animal. 

That is to say, for the most part the artist is required to 

collect enough facts about the animal. Beyond everything, 

some animals can cause or spread incurable diseases. 

Thereby, read or carry out a systematic inquiry about the 

behaviours of the animal before you begin that sketching 

adventure. 

Apart from that, animal bodies are made up of horizontal 

shapes, which display distinctive angles of their particular 

poses as compared to humans who; for the most part 

maintain an upright position in a vertical way. 

As a result of that, animal bodies affect the orientation of 

the paper during sketching. 

In a subsequent way, it is a good idea to sketch two or more 

positions at the same time. For the reason that, animals 

tend to repeat actions again and again. They pace back and 

forth in expressions of anxiety.Depending on the nature 

and the unsure behaviours of animals, be very observant as 

you sketch all the attainable postures of the animal. Most 

importantly, try all your best to record down every detail of 

each pose in a precise way inside your sketchbook. 

For some reasons, a camera may be inevitable or necessary 

especially if the animal is likely to attack—not so friendly 

to humans. Whereas, using a camera may generally require 

the artist to—take very many pictures of the animal since, 

“drawing from a single photograph is generally useless.” 

(Laidman 1974, 175) 

In a different set of circumstance, the creative artist may be 

required to draw an insect—to make a study or studies of 

a specified specimen in detail. “Insects are fascinating little 

creatures, but they can be hard to draw because they are 

so different from the animals that we are used to seeing. 

If your insects don't look perfect right away, don't give up. 

Remember to go slowly and be patient.” (Lee 2002, 5) 

Start with—sketching different parts of a provided 

specimen and see how they relate to each other as a whole 

to form a complete drawing. 

Under normal circumstances, the artist is expected to be 

very observant, since the parts which form insects are 

different from those found with distinct still-life or nature 

objects. 

That is to say, draw what is really there rather than what you 

think is likely to be. And where necessary, use a hand-lens. 

Do not start with parts that you suppose—to be difficult. 

In the same manner, too much detail is less important. Buser 

(2006, 9) offers this rational explanation: “the more detail 

is depicted, some people assume, the better the work of 

art. Since art lies in the artist's skill ...” Most times, studies of 

insects can be sketched to show different parts as dominant 

in details. By doing so, the drawing will display a focal point 

or centre of interest. 

In Lidwell et al.'s (2010) visibility principle; they remind us 

that “when it comes to design, the principle of visibility is 

perhaps the most important and most violated principle 

of design.” That is to say, it is disgraceful to find drawings 

especially of insects, done without proper observation. 

In general, “because drawings are sometimes part of a 

series of a larger scheme, they can appear unfinished but 

they can be complete in a sequence of drawings exploring 

a common theme.” Thus “it is not always relevant to talk 

in terms of finished drawing.” Micklewright (2005, 143) 

observes. 

How to draw objective study 

Objective study is a method used by creative artists 

to execute drawing artworks from a single specimen; 

in analytical representations. Baker (1984, 124) asserts, 

“Objective drawing and painting are the artist's means 

of acquiring a vocabulary of expression, design and 

composition ...” 

58 59

Apart from that, nearly all objective study drawings are 

research-based compositions. See drawing studies. 

Leonardo da Vinci used objective study to explain his art in 

various scientific ways. 

Some of Leonardo da Vinci's works indicate very many 

precise painstaking studies and details. 

According to Pedretti (2004) “Leonardo's youthful 

experiments on”—drawing “frogs and monkeys” was a 

statement to suggest that unlike scientists; objective study 

is the opportune time when artists can methodically cut up 

(a body, or a plant) in order to study its internal parts. 

To make a drawing on the subject of objective study, the 

artist has got to first carry out an investigation about a 

targeted theme. That is to say, it is imported to understand 

all the specified learning aims and objectives in order 

to fulfil all the necessary requirements of a chosen task. 

Inasmuch as, objective study—drawings can be used in 

painting, mouldings, sculpture, printings as well as graphic 

design. 

Finally, objective study is particularly done by observing 

natural objects like plants and animals. Thus, the artist is 

expected to put greater emphasis on providing evidence of 

natural growth, sensitivity, depth, texture, composition, shades 

or shadows. 

Exercise 

1. Make a study or studies of an insect using a hand lens 

of magnification. (Not less than x10) 

2. Find a model to pose in one set of croquis and choose 

one drawing tool of your own choice from the provided 

list: a brush, a pencil or ink with a pen. Observe and 

sketch the model in numerous actions poses. 

3. On a low table, make a study of a cassava plant 

freshly pulled out of the ground. It must clearly show 

the greatest parts of its roots. Leave a stem size of 

approximately 15cm long. On any side of your choice 

spread few pieces of freshly plucked cassava leaves on 

the ground close to its tubers. Lay a knife or a machete 

(panga) on the leaves and it should be visible. 

Observe and draw. 

4. Make a study or studies of a male tethered goat. 

5. Draw a landscape showing at least two noticeable sides 

of a building near a hedge or a fenced area in your 

school compound. 

6. On a well laid mattress, pose a model—to lie 

horizontally. Place the hands on top of the other, 

underneath the head. Use a pillow to support the head 

and you may wrap the model in a standard single bed 

sheet or leave the model with cloths on and no cover. 

Observe and draw. 

7. On a high stool, spread a clean spotless coloured fabric, 

showing loose folds of drapery on one side of a stool. 

On another side of your choice, allow a single leg of 

the stool to be seen. Then, place a five litre jerry can 

on top of the stool; lying on its belly side. The top part 

of a jerry can must face directly to the candidates, not 

facing up—its mouth must not face up towards the 

roof. Draw what you can see only. 

60 61

Scanty waters. 

Acrylic painting 

Size: 30cm × 50cm, 

on a hard board. 

CHAPTER FOUR 

Painting 

Painting is a method of executing artworks using colour 

pigments known as paints on distinctive enduring surfaces. 

By painting, artists can creatively decorate surfaces to make 

them appear like differing objects or images and sometimes 

both. Ssegantebuka (2003, 34) defines painting as “the art of 

using colour to express ideas, feelings or mood in pictorial 

forms.” 

Elkins (1999, 193) uses a different explanation: “Painting is 

a fine art: not merely because it“ allows painting artists to 

depict artistic images like “trees and faces and lovely things 

to see ...”using paint—owing to the fact that sometimes 

such painted objects are taken to be approaches of a 

freshman's painting. 

More so than anything else, the first known African 

paintings are believed to have been painted by the San 

people. Curtis (2006, 196) affirms, “Rock paintings were 

believed to be the first painted works of art mostly done by 

the cave people. They painted using their fingers and soft 

coloured clay on rock surfaces following examples of claw 

marks made by animals.” 

Clearly, then, a well-known ideal source of paint material 

used on rocks came from coloured soils obtained from 

organic (living matter) and inorganic (not from natural 

growth). In other words, “red” paints were obtained from 

“iron oxide, black paints were executed from inorganic 

compounds such as manganese dioxide, as well as pine 

carbons.” (Curtis 2006, 18) 

Thus, the paints used by creative artists to produce painting 

artworks can also be obtained by mixing ground colour 

pigments and they may be added with various types 

of cohesive substances such as gum to bind them on a 

planned surface. In the same manner, fine powder colour 

can be used to make paintings after mixing it with water 

to be transformed into a proper consistence of paint (in a 

paste mixture). Feisner (2006, 26) adds, “The various paint 

pigments have different mixing properties and they require 

diverse types of binders to transform them into workable 

tools.” 

Artists can creatively do painting by using local materials 

such as solid dyes from natural or synthetic substances. 

Such materials should be capable of causing colour (to 

appear) on a preferred surface for example tea, squeezed 

plants, roots or leaves. Almost always, “artificial pigments 

can be obtained by dry distillation (burning) of various 

substances such as charcoal, peat soil and fossils.” (Feisner 

2006, 26) 

Let us make our conclusion with Kyeyune's (2003, 47) brief 

record of fact: “rock paintings found at Nyero and Kakoro 

in eastern Uganda, as well as Lolui island in the east of 

Lake Victoria“ are of undisputed origin that belong to the 

past and “the significance of these paintings is yet to be 

interpreted.” In general, the art of painting is considered to 

be extant—it is the oldest and it is still surviving. 

Uses of painting 

As Jenkins (1980, 131) has remarked, “painting” is a 

“special value to a child. It is “a form of relaxation” and it 

is a “communication.” It can also be used as a means for 

releasing emotions. Indeed, through painting we can 

explain, interpret hidden meanings and information, words, 

or actions represented as colourful images (of animals, 

still-life and nature, symbols and signs, texts or words). 

Here is a brief discussion about other benefits of painting: 

• Painting attaches our daily life to the aesthetics of 

colours. 

• Through painting artists attain imitated creative 

styles—to supplement with their attained skills of 

colour use. 

62 63

• Painting can be used as a medium for sharpening a 

learner’s logical reasoning. 

• It can be used to discover the life and art of 

greatest painters as well as past events. 

• We paint to review and to practice our theoretical 

knowledge of colours. 

• During critiques, painting artists acquire shared 

knowledge about techniques and colours. 

Painting tools 

As creative artists, we can as well find some necessary 

tools for producing paintings with in our surrounding 

environments. Trowell (1951, 19) reminds us that sometimes 

the “equipment and materials of art are very expensive.” 

Hence causing serious troubles to teach and to experiment 

further about other ideas of executing painting artworks. 

As a consequence of that, let us take a look at Jenkins' (1980, 

131) table checklist to review various local tools necessary 

for painting, and easy to acquire at minimum cost. They 

include: 

Hands/feet String 

Tooth brush Rope 

Sponge Rag tied on a stick (brush) 

Straight wooden sticks (Roller) Deodorant bottle/Roll-on 

Used plastic tins for palettes Animal hair (brushes) 

Bamboo cups Plant pods (palette) 

Calabashes/Gourds Straightened sisal 

Feathers (for brushes) Cotton balls 

Plastic bottles for carrying Drinking straws (blow runny 

paints 

paint) 

Chewed sticks for paint Plant leaves 

brushes 

(colouring dyes) 

Finally, in Lund's (1998, 19) Chumash Rock Paintings: “The 

chumas are famous for their painting on cave walls ...” They 

“painted many things in nature” like “animals, fish and birds 

... stars, lines and many shapes.” They also made “paints from 

charcoal and coloured rocks.” And “from burned wood ...” 

These people also “used soft rocks that were red or white” 

to paint. 

Their process of making pigments is broken down in simple, 

manageable steps like pounding the rocks into powders 

and then, they “... added water, plant sap, or animal fat” to 

serve as binding agents. In addition, they also “used plant 

leaves or animal tails as paint brushes.” 

And they as well “painted with their fingers.” From this we 

can understand that, individual creative artists can also 

be encouraged to find various exclusive painting tools, 

materials and equipment necessary for producing painting 

artworks locally from a variety of materials available. 

Surfaces for painting 

As Jenkins (1980, 142) has asserted, “By encouraging learners 

to experiment, they can find out how surfaces and tools 

interact with each other hence building an awareness 

about paints on objects.” Clearly, then, painting accords to a 

large number of surface supports that may at times not be 

accessible by nearly all creative artists. As a result, learners 

should look forward to making explorations on various 

surfaces. Hence they will grasp various improvisation 

approaches necessary for executing their painting artworks. 

On the other hand, the learner can as well do experiments 

by painting ordinary surfaces such as “used” or old items, 

meant to be thrown away. Jenkins (1980) suggests examples 

of painting surfaces like: 

Cloth Small napkin 

Stones/ rocks Metal 

Hand kerchief/ Bandanna Animal skin/ leather 

Mat Wood 

Paper bag Plastic containers 

Newspapers Carton box papers 

CD/covers Tiles or broken pottery 

Glass And card-boards et cetera 

Ultimately, through tentative adaptations—by 

experimenting on various surfaces available, creative 

artists can as well discover, assimilate and then execute 

powerful master pieces of painting artworks. In due course, 

a favoured surface shall be picked out as an answer to the 

puzzle. 

64 65

Liquids for painting 

The types of liquids necessary for executing a painting 

artwork can also be obtain by squeezing fresh or dry fruits, 

leaves or plants and sap from plants as well as juices to 

extract colouring matter or pigment. See Watercolour painting. 

According to Jenkins (1980, 133) liquids for painting include: 

Food dyes Ink solutions 

Tea/coffee Crushed orchid flowers 

Ash Muddy cement 

Clay Mud water 

Bleach Fruit juice 

Liquid shoe polish Water mixed with powder colours 

Generally, nearly all the above mentioned types of liquids 

can mix well with gum arabic to bind solutions of (water) 

colour. It is a natural gum obtained from trees and it is 

commonly used by printing and textile artists as a binder. 

As a creative artist, try different experiments like mixing 

ordinary liquid soap with wax together with a single 

pigment, then paint. Obtained results shall show a pleasing 

textural effects. The creative artist can furthermore execute 

painting artworks by using Jenkins (1980, 137) Painting 

Variations; For instance: 

Detergent 

painting 

String painting 

Bleach painting 

Foot painting/ 

hand painting 

Straw painting 

Here, powder colours are mixed with a liquid 

detergent (jik). It is good to use on glass or 

aluminium foil. 

Immerse a string into paint, then drag or 

swirl it between a folded paper. Pull it out 

and check the obtained results. 

The artwork is made by using undiluted 

bleach. The bleach can be used on coloured 

papers or fabric. Rinse the paper to regulate 

the bleach, also use nylon brushes. 

Can suitably be done from outdoor, in this 

way; paint the feet with a brush, or dip the 

feet (or hands). After that, step out on a 

large sheet of papers or a clean fabric. 

Through the mouth, paint or ink is sipped or 

pulled inside a straw in small amounts to be 

blown out on a surface, spread it or use the 

straw to mix it (by blowing) for the time of 

creating a painting artwork. 

Chalk painting 

Resist painting 

Spot painting 

Can be done with wet coloured chalk on dry 

paper and the vice versa. 

A sketch is made using crayons and then 

a wash of watercolour or food colouring is 

painted over. 

Blots of different colours of paints can be 

poured on a paper and then pressed down 

when a paper is folded to come up with a 

fraternised blend of colours. 

A loofah sponge is ideal for this method 

of painting. It is fibrous and home grown. 

During painting, apply a colouring matter 

on the gauzy fibers using a brush. Then, run 

it (loofah sponge) on any other obtained 

surface, or by stamping. 

66 67 

Sponge 

painting 

Painting and application of materials 

Every medium of painting has its own shortcomings as well 

as prospects. In the words of Mayesky (2009, 269), “a set of 

paints can be carried easily if the containers are placed well 

in a tomato basket.” He was referring to a particular manner 

of handling paints, transporting them from one place to 

another. 

Thus, during working; a painting beginner should be 

nurtured with the various ways of how to deal with the 

entire process of executing a painting artwork. For instance, 

it is important for the learner to begin by learning how to 

prepare powder colours. If they are well prepared, they are 

easy to handle, clean and wash. In addition to that, powder 

paints dry quickly. 

Powder paints can be prepared locally by adding one 

specified type of fermentation substance like honey, sugar, 

or local brew (mwenge bigere). In small quantities not in 

excess of reasonable requirements, mix the fermentation 

substance with powder paint and then, put a cover and tie 

the container. Wait for the process of fermentation to take 

place. It may take two to three days for your (paint) pigment 

to be ready for use. 

To make an effective smear of paints on a surface, the 

creative artist may use only the fingers (the thumb or the 

middle fingers) and probably chewed sticks. But in actual 

practice, many artists paint with a brush or a palette knife.

Webbo (1996, 40) observes that “... sometimes we find that 

one needs a commercial material to be able to produce 

a kind of material to replace the actual one that should 

have been used.” Thereby, if you can afford to buy paint 

brushes—go for types made with (“animal hair”) nylon 

thread fibres. They are good for painting with acrylic paints. 

Yet, “bristled brushes” are fine with “powder” and oil paints. 

Here is a table showing Webbo's (1996, 40) improvisation of 

tools, particularly basic materials and equipment: 

Commercial Improvised 

Paint brushes Sisal brush, quill feather, chewed twigs 

Pens Stick pen, bamboo pen, cocoa nut leaf stalk. 

Sand paper Broken bottles, leaves (Ficus capreifolia) 

Chisel Forged metal or a nail (6 inch). 

Pallets 

Bamboo tray and cups, calabashes, coconut 

shells, gourd. 

Paper 

Cement paper, maize or wheat meal 

packages, old newspapers and walls. 

Paste 

Maize meal paste, cassava, wheat, seed pod 

paste and plant paste. 

Paint 

Earth paint, plant dyes, charcoal, ash, 

ordinary ink, coloured chalk, soot. 

The strategy here is to guide the learner to discovering 

improvised tools, materials and equipment necessary for 

painting. He or she must as well be able to know where to 

find them. According to Webbo (1996, 40), “improvisation in 

schools should be regarded as a means for the teacher to 

continue with lessons despite lack of commercial materials, 

tools and equipment and not only making the pupil put 

them to use ... but also learning how to produce them 

locally.” 

Thereby, at the appropriate stage of mixing and application 

of ready paints—pigments can be caused to mix together 

on a clean surface of a plastic plate, container cover or in 

plastic tins nailed on a wooden board of an easy to carry 

size, as opposed to the costly standard palettes. 

To paint on a surface of a canvas, the cloth must be properly 

stretched onto a wooden frame or any available suitable 

support to allow proper painting processes. In Gottsegen's 

(2006, 41) The painter's handbook; “Today artists chiefly use 

cotton, linen and a few synthetic fabrics. Canvas is a term 

often applied to cotton materials.” 

Clearly, then, as a creative artist consider making further 

painting experiments on other surfaces. Like hard paper, 

bark cloth, wood, mats, used-sisal sacks, metal plates, furniture 

and plastics. 

Nonetheless, if you plan to work or make a painting 

artwork on any of the above mentioned surface supports; 

use gesso to prime the chosen ground. Gesso is a type of 

(primer) under coating material. It is (made) “mixed with a 

combination of chalk, powdered plaster and glue.” (Feisner. 

2006, 27) 

Gesso gives a false brilliance to colours during painting 

as well as preventing the absorption of subsequent layers 

of paint into a surface of the support and it keeps the 

artwork safe from developing rust in case the artist worked 

or painted the artwork on a metallic surface. Locally, the 

creative artist can use (boiled) cassava flour to prime the 

canvas, it is cheaper than gesso. 

Apart from that, at the stage of transferring a sketch, start 

with a sizeable copy of a desired drawing. Ashwin (1982, 159) 

notes, “One of the traps in drawing for painting is to attempt 

to get the drawing to anticipate or emulate the qualities, 

which one hopes to achieve.” On the contrary, that may not 

always be the case because when it comes to painting there 

is no professional formula. 

However, it is as well important for the learner to 

understand that during painting. By no means—will a 

painter be tolerated, if a painted artwork is done by using 

exact colours. 

A good case in point could be using a pigment (of red as 

red, or green as green) without any vagueness, but exactly 

as we perceive them with our naked eyes. Such painting 

actions can only be endured if a task undertaken is aiming 

at achieving an experimental learning objective such as 

understanding the precise appearance of different colours 

on different surfaces. 

To begin the process of executing a painting artwork, Elkins 

(1999, 95) offers this explanation: “If there is one subject that 

is treated in every one of the thousand-odd artist's manuals, 

it is starting a painting along with knowing how to finish a 

painting.” Here we see that the approaches of executing a 

complete painting artwork are limitless. 

68 69

Although it is sometimes necessary for learners to be taught 

how to avoid making a painting without putting logical 

judgement that colours appear vigorous if they are carefully 

matched or balanced consistently. Aliquot parts of (colours) 

paints should be evenly distributed throughout—not to 

concentrate on the most pleasurable details such as corner 

area or spaces on a painting artwork. It is a “naive painting 

style.” (Kyeyune. 2003, 104) 

To some extent, such problems are caused by lack of 

experience. It forces the learner to hold colours—without 

moving them to and fro, in the course of executing a 

painting artwork. Trowell (1951, 25) affirms, “Many children 

find difficulty in mixing colour and this is also the aspect, 

which may lead to lack of success” in dispersing or 

distributing colours “smoothly on the paper” or any other 

chosen surface. 

Ultimately, when all the intended out comes of executing 

a painting are successfully carried out, always remember 

to thoroughly clean up the place. Wash and dry all the 

paintbrushes and keep their bristles facing up, all the time. 

Painting techniques 

Before a preferred method of painting is put to a befitting 

use; a sketch has got to be done. Ashwin (1982, 223) notes, 

“... when students were advised to sketch, they were able 

to attain the vigour and spontaneity of the sketch ... even 

at the major stages of painting.” Indeed, creative artists 

produce varying painting artworks from a sketch—in 

different approaches. 

Here is a set out list of some conventional painting 

techniques: 

a) Collage painting is a method of executing artworks 

with various soft coloured forms of materials such 

as paper, photographs and fabric on a single surface. 

A successful collage artwork must at least contain 

materials that are closely connected, like cloth 

on paper. Other examples of collage fascinations 

are photography paper pieces, theatre tickets and 

newspapers. Nonetheless, paint pigments can also be 

used in a mix and match approach to execute a collage 

artwork. Pablo Picasso used this technique to execute 

a large number of his painting artworks. However, the 

techniques of collage painting are limitless. 

b) Watercolour painting is a method of creating 

artworks with pale diluted colours, not by adding white 

paint. Various water colouring materials can be locally 

acquired from earthly colour materials such as quarries 

or surface cuttings where different layers of rocks 

have been exposed. But then, such colours have to be 

processed by grinding and sieving. 

Other types of watercolours necessary for painting 

can furthermore be obtained from plant leaves or 

flowers. Trowell (1951, 125) alleges, “Colour from leaves 

and berries can be prepared for use during painting 

by hammering them to a pulp between stones” or by 

using a pestle and mortar. 

Painting artists like Albrecht and John Marin used 

watercolour techniques to produce painting artworks. 

In Blake's (1997) Acrylic Watercolour Painting, the 

techniques of watercolour painting are listed as 

“washes, wet-in-wet, dry brush, scrambling, opaque et 

cetera.” 

Let us make a review of different methods used in 

watercolour painting from the table list provided 

below: 

70 71 

Dry brush 

Washes and 

glazes 

This technique creates watercolour paint 

markings which are very brittle, with hard 

edge creeps. The generated trails of a 

dry brush indicate breaking or shattering 

markings on a surface of a dry paper 

during painting. Dry brush is good for 

areas around the centre of interest. “When 

you're working in traditional watercolour, 

each new dry- brush application is likely 

to scrub off or stir up the soluble paint 

underneath” Blake (1997, 112) laments. 

Crabtree et al. (1998, 180) explain wash 

and glazes solely in this way; “A wash is a 

large area of transparent colour, whereas 

a glaze is more localised.” This method 

of watercolour painting produces an 

impression of light gracefulness and 

elegance with a delicate translucent 

colour effect particularly if the artist used 

a grainy surface. Glazing only allows the 

previous colour to show through–over a 

previous layer of paint. 

Mother. 

A watercolour 

painting 

Material: 

Watercolour 

papers 

Size: 14cm × 30cm

Wet in wet 

Diluting 

and mixing 

watercolour 

paints 

Minimal 

palettes 

The surface or paper is used when it is 

already wet. According to Blake (1997, 91) 

“wet-in-wet ... is sometimes called the wet 

paper method.” It is not so easy to use. 

What makes the wet method so difficult 

is that a brush-load of colour is supposed 

to be applied to a sopping wet surface. 

Sometimes watercolour generally runs off 

in some unpredictable direction. 

This is a watercolour method of painting 

where the artist applies a thick, heavy, 

opaque paint on a surface as it comes 

from the tube. And at the stage of creating 

pale colours, the paints are heavily diluted 

with water. The good point about this 

type of painting is the range of colour 

effects it produces from the separate paint 

consistencies. 

This is a method of watercolour painting. 

Where by, the artist uses a small range 

of colours during painting. For instance, 

a watercolour painting can be created 

by using the basic three primary colours 

along with white and black. On the other 

hand, painting with minimal pallets 

is often enhanced by under drawing 

markings of a pen or ink. 

c) Encaustic painting is executed by mixing (paint) 

pigments with hot “beeswax not oil” Elkins (1999, 

132). Encaustic is suitable for painting on wooden 

surfaces and hard paper. Painters who use encaustic 

to produce painting artworks; do that, by sculpting or 

modelling a mixture of paints with heated beeswax 

to hold together onto a surface. For the creative artist 

to achieve the desired learning outcomes, special 

tools as well as skills may be required to execute this 

experimental aspiration. For example, a palette knife, 

bee waxes as well as ground pigments. Thus, mix 

powder paints or acrylic paint with hot bee wax and 

where necessary add linseed oil so that the paint paste 

changes into a semi translucent—fresh pigment. Then, 

start to paint. 

d) Mosaic painting deal with a number of hard colourful 

materials, for example glass, wood, tiles, metal, stone 

and plastic. These can be arranged together to form 

various variegated patterns. 

The process and techniques of artwork execution 

generally depends on the type of material the artist has 

chosen. Mosaic paintings are good for decorating walls, 

roofs and floors for houses. 

e) Fresco painting is a technique of applying 

water-based colour pigment to wet (lime) plaster/ 

mortar on a wall surface or a ceiling. When the colour 

pigments are combined with plaster, they diffuse into 

the wet paint plaster—not to peel when exposed to 

humidity and wetness. That is to say, the colours in 

fresco penetrate the plaster and they become fixed 

as it dries. Working with fresco requires the painter to 

work quickly and to be attentive to potential problems 

since mistakes are not easy to be undone. Michelangelo, 

Giotto, Masaccio used this method of painting in most 

of their work. 

f) Fresco secco is a technique of painting used on dry 

plaster. Firstly, the (paint) pigments are mixed in water 

before applying them on a dry wall. The fresco secco 

approach puts on display brilliant colours than fresco. 

In this method the process of working involves using 

“the plastered surface of a wall soaked with slaked lime 

... Secco colours dry lighter than their tone at the time 

of application, producing the pale, mat, chalky quality 

of a distempered wall ... ” (Encyclopaedia Britannica) 

g) Pastel painting works as a pure form of pigment; it 

can be applied onto a surface directly. Using pastels 

requires no medium or vehicle such as oil or water 

except if the painting artist has chosen to paint by 

using a mixed media technique—combining several 

media and various materials within a single painting 

artwork. Ultimately, pastel painting is capable of 

generating greater intensities of hues than most 

painting mediums. 

h) Egg tempera painting is a method of creating 

artworks with a water base paint mixed with an egg 

yolk (as a binder) and water. It is easy to prepare and 

it is usually fit for use on an already primed surfaces 

(to prevent paint absorption). A painting done with 

egg tempera has got to be protected from harmful 

and damaging insects once it looses its wetness. 

Mill for a meal. 

A pastel painting 

with trimmed 

corners. 

Materials: Pastel 

on bark cloth. 


72 73

Trowell (1951, 27) shares a rational suggestion: “it is 

difficult for ordinary people to buy ... poison to keep 

away insects.” Thus, “mix a small amount of D.D.T 

powder or gammexine with the paint” before you start 

to paint. In most cases, the outcome of such pigment 

is opaque. Generally, egg tempera painting dries very 

quickly on a slightly roughened surface such as metal 

or sisal sack. Andrew Wyeth painted with egg tempera 

on panels. 

i) Oil painting is pertinent to using ground colour 

pigments; it is often mixed with other solvents such 

as turpentine to obtain a thinner, faster drying paint, 

or it can be mixed with linseed oil for a praiseworthy 

drying. Elkins (1999, 1) explains, ”to make oil paint, it is 

only necessary for the painting artist to make inquiries 

about powdered rock,” then “mix it with linseed oil.” The 

attained results are therefore spread in an approach 

commonly referred to as painting “with a brush” on a 

surface of the support. Colour consistency is the most 

important. 

There is a considerable difference between oil and acrylic 

paints. From time to time, creative artists decide on using 

a single type or both of them (oil and acrylic paints) 

simultaneously on distinct surfaces. Gardner (1998, 84) 

asserts, “Artists find working with acrylic paint much like 

working with oil paint and apply it to the same surfaces as 

are used for oil painting.” Let us see the benefits of using 

each one of them. 

Advantages of using acrylic paints 

Acrylic paint can be creatively used “to paint ... wooden or 

plastic objects such as toys, jewellery, picture frames, or 

screen posters.” (Shivers 2010, 96) 

Other important advantages of using acrylic paints include: 

• Acrylic paint contains a substance of glue and this 

type of paint is easy to be watered down or diluted 

with water during painting. And when it gets 

dry, it becomes water-resistant. Thereby, a work 

of art painted with acrylics is well protected and 

preserved. 

• If acrylic paints are mixed well, they are more 

permanent and they do not crack easily. 

• Paintings done with acrylics dry well and it is 

possible for a painter to directly put additional 

layers of paint on top of the already existing 

colours. 

• Acrylic paints can work as thinned colours; they 

do not possess a solvent type of smell. It is easy to 

extract acrylic paints straight from a tube or a tin. 

That is to say, it is pliable. 

• Acrylic paints are easier to clean. The painter is 

only required to use water to clean a wet stain. 

• And also, acrylic paints can be mixed with other 

thinning substances in order to achieve the best— 

desired performances. 

On the other hand, during painting it is not easy to make 

pure mixes of blend by using acrylic paints. Nonetheless, 

if the artwork of a painting is big and it is likely to take 

more time to finish—add or mix paints with turpentine to 

lengthen the time for which it must dry. 

Advantages of using oil paints 

As Gardner (1998, 118) has remarked, “Tempera reigned 

as the most favoured medium to painters until the 

introduction of oil paint.” As a result of this, oil paint is 

distinctly known as a conventional material typically used 

by nearly all artists. 

Let us have a brief analysis of basic benefits the painter can 

get if he/she used oil paints: 

• Oil paints cause durable shiny surfaces assisted by 

their pure colour reflections. Accordingly, oil paint 

is a good choice for recreating and creating new 

works of art. 

• A painting done with oil paints can be left open for 

a long period of time—during public displays. 

• Oil paints can easily generate smooth tonal 

variations by using a brush or any other smudging 

and/or spreading tools. In an easy manner, the 

artist can create series of blends and intonations 

using oil paints. 

• Oil paints dry slowly during painting (or artwork) 

executions. Thus, it allows easy working processes. 

Such as adding and mixing colour straight on a 

canvas. 

74 75

Many more significant benefits and drawbacks of using oil 

and acrylic paints will come by during working in your daily 

practices—particularly if you will gain necessary skills from 

the entire approaches of painting provided. 

We can conclude with Gardner's (1998) creative statement: 

“Artists devise ways of applying paint with a brush or 

palate knife.” That is to say, in a natural manner you will also 

discover more techniques of painting even by using various 

colouring substances, tools and materials. 

Exercise 

1. As a creative painter, make an imaginative composition 

of a painting from one theme here below: 

• My first day at school 

• Women emancipation 

• A day at school without shoes 

• Returning a borrowed book you are obsessed with. 

2. Choose one theme from the list provided and make 

a composition of a painting artwork appearing as a 

detailed study or studies: 

• A full body structure or parts of a human figure 

• A simple still life combining the natural with the 

man-made 

3. By using the knowledge and skills you have acquired in 

painting. Choose one theme from the provided list and 

paint a pictorial composition about: 

• Your homestead 

• Child labour 

• Child torture or Child neglect 

• Corruption 

• A fight for women's rights 

Use only one painting technique of your choice. 

4. In a mixed media approach, produce one painting of 

from the provided list of themes: 

• Landscapes 

• Seascapes 

• Townscape 

CHAPTER FIVE 

Graphic design 

The inner importance and meaning of graphic design is 

broad. 

Graphic design is a functional visual language of art and 

design where artful images are arranged—alongside with 

texts to make information known (communicate) and to set 

things in order. 

In the past, the early man unconsciously did graphic 

design by using depiction techniques of a kind like etching, 

engraving, printing and decorating—mostly with simple 

tools such as bare hands, bones, stones, smears of animal fat, 

blood, soils and curved woody projections of sharp-pointed 

tree stems as well as plant parts such as leaves. 

Frank (2000) offers a rational explanation: “outdoor signs 

used above shops were the first form of advertising done 

by the Greeks and the Romans.” In spite of that, “Egyptian 

merchants hired criers to direct customers and to walk 

through streets to announce the arrival of ships as well as 

their cargo.” 

This statement enlightens us about the origins and 

importance of graphic art; announcing using printed 

pictures, text scribbles or notifications and other public 

displays commonly referred to as advertisements in 

organised arrangements. 

Today, graphic design has become better in terms of 

creativity, process, materials, purposes and applications. 

Most importantly, computers were introduced and they are 

taken to be one of graphic arts greatest significance. Fiell 

& Charlotte (2007, 7) assert, “... now everyone with access to 

a personal computer thinks he or she is a design maestro, 

regardless of talent.” 

But then, a computer alone is not the most important 

design tool necessary for executing a successful graphic 

design. Acquiring special skills and knowledge of explaining 

the meaning of information, words, or actions for a specified 

task, orderliness and clarity—are some of the essential 

points necessary for nearly all hidden subjective interpretations 

of a graphic design. 

76 77

Well as computers have dominated a big part in the graphic 

designer's creative processes; to a greater extent, they have 

only given rise to high-speed designs and production. 

According to William (2007), “before computers, layouts 

could take days and the final artwork was not as detailed or 

complete as designs created today.” 

Distinctly, then, many artists with good computer skills and 

creativity have turned out to be efficient in most graphic 

design engagement techniques and applications—used 

during processes of integrating images and texts. After 

all, today, nearly all graphic design processes necessitate 

touching on the digital. (Fiell et al. 2007; 7) 

In their book Contemporary Graphic Design: Fiell & Charlotte 

(2007, 7) explain that “in some ways the digital ascendancy 

has eroded the professional graphic designer's status....” 

But then, computers have not knocked out the creativity 

of graphic designers. Actually, it is the graphic designer 

who commands each design application used in personal 

computers. Hence designers are expected to make a sketch 

as the computer waits for input. 

Most importantly, a sketch guides the first stage of a graphic 

design. And this may involve discussing ideas, which led to 

the reason of selecting a particular design. Other uses of a 

sketch include; enhancing a concept, helping to compose the 

basic layout of a design, processing/researching solutions of 

a design visually, its also a client communication and it can 

be used for very many design endorsements. In other words, 

learners must understand that a computer is only meant to 

reproduce ideas from a graphic designer's sketch. 

However, not much can be unearthed within the time a 

creative graphic designer spends in school. Since learning 

about graphic design is very extensive. In Kyeyune's (2003; 

40) view, “throughout 1935 to 1936 apart from ordinary 

school lessons in drawing, little attempt was made to 

give instructions in graphic arts and there is no society to 

encourage its development.” Here we see that in spite of the 

fact that graphic design is a vast branch of art and design 

studies, not many of us are mindful of it. Probably because 

graphic arts is not well explained in schools. 

Moreover, “today it is not unusual for graphic designers to 

go on to have post careers as art directors and production 

designers.” (Fiell & Charlotte 2007, 7) 

That is to say, a large number of proficient people work as 

graphic designers because of its limitless line of duties. 

Here is a table showing occupations of people who work as 

graphic designers: 

Graphic design careers 

Interior design Film/Television Digital printing 

Web design Product design Cartoon making 

Animations Print making Interface designing 

Illustration Architecture Exhibition/Display 

Poster design Typography Pree-Press 

Book design/ 

Publishing 

Fabric decoration/ 

Fashion 

Information Graphics 

Uses of graphic design 

Graphic design is held accountable for plenty of things— 

in our daily lives. It serves to those who read and those who 

are unable to read or write, hear or talk in the following 

ways: 

• Graphic design enables us to make intelligent use 

of symbols—alone, or together with typography. 

• It provides a utility support for suitable use of 

useful vocabulary in the most convenient way. 

• It is an important tool in all ways of advertising and 

visual communications. 

• Graphic designs bring orderliness and 

arrangement of our social tendencies. 

• Besides, graphic design regards FUNCTION as the 

most important aspect of a working design. 

Apart from that, a complete graphic design encompass 

various visual elements and principles of design that are 

worthy of attention. Smith (2005, 487) asserts, “... graphic 

design principles guide designers who are laying out 

the various elements in an advertisement, brochure, or 

magazine page based on sensitivity to such visual concepts 

as unity, direction, dominance and contrast.” Thus, other 

examples of elements of design used by graphic designers 

include line, shape, texture and colour. Yet, movement, 

balance, emphasis are among the few principles of design 

commonly used by graphic designers. Read more from Chapter 

Two. 

78 79

Information graphics 

The study of information graphics deals with representations 

of graphs, icons, illustrations or images, maps and 

symbols—portrayed as abstract visual information in 

simplified visual data. 

In Lidwell et al.'s (2010, 132) Icons Representation; they are 

used to “... reduce performance load ... For example, a door 

lock can be symbolised with an image of a padlock even 

though the padlock looks nothing like the actual.” In other 

words, distinct images are routinely represented with 

simple icons basing on their purposes—information they 

are created for and they are also created in different ways 

for very many kinds of visual displays to show quantitative 

and statistical data on graphs and maps. 

In your home area look at information boards, graphs and 

maps to be able to understand the different ways of how to 

display data, facts and statistics for precise, quick, effective 

analysis. 

A large number of information graphics are created in 

accordance with the universal visual language. That is to say, 

icons of information graphics are liable to possess strong 

colours such as red, blue or black against white. “Warm, 

strong colours such as red are better spot colour choices 

for visual signals such as headlines and standing headlines. 

Body text in colour will slow the reader down in processing 

the information and could discourage readability.” (Rolnicki 

et al. 2001, 280) 

How to plan a design process 

As you think about what to do with your inspirational ideas 

for a graphic design project. Start alongside of a design 

brief. 

Never take a design situation for granted—that you know 

what to expect about an existing problem. Willard & 

Marietta (1961) allege, “Genuine creative thinking in any 

field is done on an abstract level. The reasons being familiar 

things are not necessarily obvious.” Here we see that graphic 

designers have got to plan for the time of starting a design 

process. 

Begin by planning the working process. A designer is 

expected to focus attention to the most desired results. 

Write down an estimation of the design stipulations 

(specification) in outlines. 

Thus, invest time in making inquiries about the problem. A 

creative artist may also need to make feasible investigations 

about the different ways of dealing with each of the stated 

events. This stage includes asking questions from specialists. 

Draw a mind map to state an outline of general problems 

needed to be solved along with a list of possible available 

answers. Jenkins (1980, 30) notes, “at every age or stage 

most people go through the stage of manipulation when 

presented with a new material.” 

Hence, if a design necessitates an artwork or a sketch, get 

back into the studio and draw possible artwork solutions on 

paper. Your first idea may not necessarily be the best, so try 

out different design concepts and then combine all ideas 

created—into one corresponding appearance fit for your 

obtained research. 

After that, single out a more suitable solution in which your 

final idea will later on be developed. And be sure that it can 

satisfy some of the specifications included for the research 

or task. 

That is to say, at this stage preferred drawings should 

at least contain every necessary detail of the expected 

final design. Also here, a budget can be included—when 

necessary; to assist and to provide some clear justifications 

of the worthiness of a proposed project or design. 

Then, go ahead and construct a typical example of a 

preliminary version or a model and make tests. These may 

include procedures prejudged to establish the quality, 

performance, or reliability of the project. 

Remember, very few designs are perfect, but if you want 

to acquire more knowledge about the success of your 

design ask your self-questions like; how well will the design 

function? Will the design work in a reliable way? Or, can the 

design be used without harm? And, can it be understood? 

Lastly, make a written account of the process in form of a 

report. It is necessary for it provides evidence and a detailed 

description of the design and materials used to execute the 

project. Also, it explains the designer's ability to analyse, 

plan, create, evaluate, produce, communicate and deliver. 

Nonetheless, the reasons of working with a design brief 

differ. Once in a while, the approach or series of steps and 

research needed to execute a design are never the same. 

80 81

Phillips (2004, 9) reminds us that “there are many design 

It is important to think about meaning and function in 

projects that could be classified as routine or on going that 

typography. Spiekermann et al. (1993, 54) inform us that 

would not require a formal design brief.” Thereby, a design 

“ever since, people have been writing things down. They 

brief may be as simple as drafting a short description, which 

have had to consider their audiences before they actually 

will assist a user group and for explaining the purpose of 

put a pen on paper.” 

the product you have created. 

The type used on a design is therefore expected to be 

Features of a graphic design 

applicable to the matter at hand. For instance, targeted 

In general, graphic designers compose visual artworks in 

audiences include people of different age groups, sex, 

very many ways. As an example, the design created may 

religion, lifestyle, culture and customs. As a graphic 

sometimes contain “images, texts ... to naturalise specific 

designer, it is essential to use—easy to read type, 

meanings of connotations” Barnard (2005, 38) notes. 

particularly when the message is written for very young 

As a result of that, on a basic visual or communication 

children. 

design you are more likely to find the following mysterious 

Fortunately, creative graphic designers today have a wide 

fascinations: 

range of type to choose from. We can understand that from 

(a) the image (illustration) 

Galbreath's (2008, 36) assertions that “by choosing type 

faces and arranging then on the pages of your book: are 

(b) typography (relies on) 

the essential steps in creating an inviting and appropriate 

(c) a layout—to communicate or present a message 

atmosphere ...” that conveys positive visual messages. 

Fiell & Charlotte (2007) say, to get a message across “today's 

graphic designers have to be ever-more aware of the 

fast-moving currents characterised with short attention 

spans.” Readers today, pay less attention as a result of 

the tedious repetitions of informing messages found on 

streets, walls, hallways and notice boards “... which leads 

to a natural empathy—caused by technology.” Doubtless, 

then, the necessary messages that we use to officially 

announce visual utterances on most graphic designs 

calls for simplicity, clearness or clarity and it is vital to 

make every part of a graphic design visible, readable and 

understandable. 

A careful look at fonts, type or letters unveils two types 

of fonts—serif and sans serif. 

The serif fonts appear with 

detailed little extensions at the 

extremities of their corner ends 

and san serifs are regarded as 

San serif Serif 

fonts with an even (flat and 

smooth) stroke. 

San serifs are good to use on headlines and for making bold 

statements because of their clean and simple appearances. 

Typically, the word sans comes from a French word without. 

(Buser 2005, 282) 

Typography 

A large number of visual communications and designs 

possess letters or type meant to function in specified ways. 

White (2002, 103) explains “typography” with this brief 

statement; “The root words that make up typography are 

typo (type) and graphy (drawing). So it means drawing with 

type.” Accordingly, typography is considered to be the art of 

Let us conclude with White's (2002, 103) view that 

“typography involves far more than working with abstract 

black shapes. In practice, typographic decisions ... should be 

nine out of ten times about manipulation of space around 

the letter forms.” This is a revelation that must be fulfilled by 

designers—even when they are creating layouts. Type has 

got to be legible. 

composing or setting type in a functional arrangement. This 

How to use typography on a visual design 

may also include printing and appearance of type. 

Nearly all creative artists with the ability to communicate 

On the other hand, the word typography is associated with 

through writing—use typography to convey their messages 

meanings of words like characters, letters, type, style and 

fonts—whenever type is set to appear on a visual design. 

in various outstanding visual ways. 

82 83

That is to say, typography deals with a large number of 

humanity signals which are recommended by our cultures, 

civilisation, language and nationalities. However, in 

Galbreath's (2008, 37) typography and alignment, he relies on 

“justified, centred, flush left and flush right” to achieve visual 

alignment necessary for arranging type. 

Here is Galbreath's (2008, 37) manifestations of text 

alignment: 

Flush right 

Justified 

Is not frequently used. But, Is good for novels, it is the most 

it can be used for captions, familiar and efficient way to 

minimal or insignificant notes set main headlines. When the 

and it can create an attractive length of a text line is too short, 

relationship with different the hyphenation and spacing 

design elements on a page. will break in uneven way. 

Centred 

Flush left 

It is good for (greetings This is a modern way 

card) small pages, headings, of presenting text, it is 

chapters and messages asymmetrical. It allows a good 

because it is active. flow of words. It works well on 

Important words must be put 

on their own lines. 

narrow columns. The rough 

edges of a text must not form 

recognisable shapes 

On the other hand, aligning of text does not only refer 

to justified, centred, flush left and flush right as indicated 

above. As a creative artist look for more or create your own 

typography alignments, colour, style and font formats “on 

chapters, headings, titles pages and cover typography.” 

(Galbreath 2008, 37) 

Let us make a quick review on how Brady (1989, 12- ) uses 

creative “analysis of typography significance” to discuss the 

various outstanding ways used to communicate a message: 

a) Obtain knowledge or information concerning the 

audience for which the typography is going to be used. 

b) Never use decorative and flamboyant typefaces in 

texts; they are almost not clear enough to read. Yet, 

positioning then into a sentence is a very difficult task. 

c) Even if you want to achieve a common goal by using 

two typeface families, restrain from using those that are 

too identical. Besides, as a creative designer you can as 

well draw your own typefaces for any design. 

d) Some typefaces cannot be set in complete caps. That 

is to say, it is equally advisable to use a typeface that is 

reliably trusted by its qualities. For instance, Calligraphy 

typeface is good for shorter words or sentences such as, 

headlines in long texts. It is also good for paragraphs. 

e) Identify and specify the number of typefaces you wish 

to use for a design. If it is one, make sure that the one 

you have chosen can compromise with variety in terms 

of sizes. 

f) Find a clear or obvious type that will convey a reader’s 

role so that the reader does not go beyond limits of 

seeing and reading. That is to say, choose type, which 

calls mind to your message. It should be prominent and 

visible on a design. 

g) If a designer chooses a typeface with a large x-height, 

it may appear large and to a greater extent deserted. 

Thereby, keep enough white spaces within bounds of a 

layout. Space applies to the approaches in which visual 

designs such as logos and monograms are created. 

h) Be aware of every typeface weight during the stage 

of design. Therefore, make printouts of the document 

where there are uncertainties. 

i) Keep away from composing large-scale structures 

of texts in italic or bold, they are not easy to read. 

Remember, some typefaces are used in customary 

ways. 

j) On headlines and sub titles, compare and make a 

decision on what to make point of (outstanding). For 

example, size or weights—as you compose a layout. 

And feel free to use more than size to create differentiation. 

k) Where possible, think carefully and put your 

considerations on counting characters to reduce 

the number of pages, in addition to costs if you are 

producing a booklet, pamphlet, leaflet, flyer, handbill, 

catalogue, prospectus and fact sheets. 

l) If you want to use a bold typeface in a distinctive 

design, be observant and careful before you act. Owing 

to the fact that a typeface chosen must at least retain 

the beauty of its companions. 

84 85

m) In conclusion, on any outstanding graphic design 

In the opinion of Ashwin (1982, 171), “the reeds 

containing text—typefaces must be composed after 

should be stored in a warm dry place.” Accordingly, 

spreading out distance or size on which the design will 

a reed meant for making a calligraphy pen should 

be set. 

be stored for at least two months to dry. 

Calligraphy 

However, in today’s world of computers, 

The study of typography and graphic design is extremely 

calligraphy already exists as a font used by personal 

large. As creative graphic designers, it is important to note 

computers. Applications such as Font lab studio 

that calligraphy is oftentimes hand written. 

and very many others allow creative designers 

On the other hand, nearly all designers of calligraphy refer 

to this type of writing as beautiful writing. Swanson (2000, 

144) concurs, “... calligraphy is more than simply a stylish 

fashion” of beautiful writing. Nonetheless, it is highly 

decorative and it contains text written with meticulous 

to explore the gallery of calligraphy fonts and to 

create or design fonts. 

How to construct block letters 

The procedure of constructing block letters necessitates 

drawing long straight lines, which result into a grid of 

The parts of 

a calligraphy 

letter or type 

joins, links and connections. 

squares. 

Certainly, learners should be advised not to confuse (italics) 

Here is a possible approach in which block letters can be 

slanted letters with calligraphy. 

constructed. 

A hand making 

scribbles of lowercase 

calligraphy letters 

on a paper. 

Materials: White paper, 

a feather and black ink. 

Almost always, calligraphy writing is commonly used on 

stylish official documents, like certificates, manuscripts and 

greetings cards. Such documents; written with calligraphy 

text—can only be read very near our eyes in order to 

translate their meanings. Hence, calligraphy message has 

got to be briefly stated in lowercase with full punctuation 

marks. 

To achieve the whole idea about writing or scrawling 

calligraphy, a creative graphic designer is required 

to have a flat-nibbled pen, or a soft flat brush, ruled 

paper and water-based ink. 

Some other basic tools used for calligraphy 

writing are; flat nib or a sharpened quill (from a 

goose, raven, crow and a swan), bamboo sticks or 

elephant grass, quill ink or any water based ink and 

a clean piece of paper. 

Open a fresh page in your sketchbook or find a plain sheet 

of paper—at least size A3, a ruler, a pen or pencil and a pair 

of compasses. Then, write down all the letters of alphabets 

from A to Z, in capital letters on one corner of the same 

paper (page). 

Next, draw two lines to form a right angle measuring 90° 

with a horizontal line intersecting through a vertical straight 

line on one corner of the paper. 

Pick a pair of compasses, on its pencil holder fit in a pencil 

and tie it well. Then, pick a straight ruler with clear (units) 

markings. Point the two parts; the needle of a pair of 

compasses and the pencil nib on a ruler and carefully 

measure any two units (for example, from 0 cm - 1 cm). 

The obtained estimations shall represent the actual size 

of each square. Get back to the sketchbook; 

put the set pair of compasses on the exact 

corner where the two lines meet. (Vertical 

90º 

A quill or a feather can be prepared by scraping 

and horizontal lines, already drawn at 90 

out its thin membrane from inside. Then, cook 

the feather for some time with hot sand to 

dry out the natural fats. 

degrees). 

Move the pair of compasses step by step along the space 

on a single straight vertical and/or each horizontal line. The 

A hand 

constructing 

a square grid 

Sharpen the calamus (the hollow 

mark created on each line with a pencil shall appear like a at 900. Angle 

lower part of the shaft of a feather) 

curvature or enclosing brackets, which separate words from Materials: A pair 

end part on a feather to make a nib. 

surrounding text—by twisting and turning the pencil. Then, of compasses 

Other calligraphy writers use a reed for 

drawing letters. 

on each generated mark (indicated as a bracket) draw lines 

on them to form a preferred square grid in equal sizes of 

a paper, a ruler 

and a pencil 

86 

squares. 

87

Block letters 

of alphabet 

constructed 

by using a 

square grid 

That is to say, the attained squares must be accurate and 

precise. Wrong lines (square grid) will lead to futile letter 

constructions. 

We can use the categorisation set out in the table below to 

make a quick review of the number of squares needed to 

construct each letter of alphabet on a square grid. 

Number of squares Categories of letters 

3×5 

4×5 or 5×5 and 

1×5 

However, after acquiring enough skills of drawing each 

block letter, the learner may also be encouraged to 

experiment further by doubling the number of squares to 

draw block letters in different ways. 

In Ryan's (2001, 1) introduction about Letter Perfect: “As a 

basic building material, the printed letter is comprised 

of assembled shapes and forms ...” From this we can 

understand that the learner can also make block letters of 

alphabet and numbers with the help of general shapes. For 

that reason, observe each letter carefully before you draw to 

establish exactly the kind of shape or shapes needed. 

How shapes influence letter construction 

During the process of constructing block letters, the series 

of steps taken sometimes necessitate drawing general 

shapes such as squares, rectangles, triangles and circles. For 

instance, circles can be used to derive corners and curves 

need for letters that indicate round corners. 

As is evident, squares are mainly used for setting up 

a 'square grid' in which desired block letters can be 

constructed. By analysis, basic shapes can quickly be 

obtained from a well-constructed square grid in right 

arithmetical (square) values of 3×5 or 1×5 and 5×5. 

Here is a table discussing ways in which general shapes can 

cause transformations, which reveal actual block letters: 

General shapes Types of block letters 

Block letters that lean on such a shape 

Triangles have got a 'V' component. They are: 

88 89 

Circles 

Square 

Rectangle 

Not very many letters can be obtained by 

using this shape. A circle is mostly used to 

draw arcs or curves as well as corner parts 

of: S, C, D, J, G, O, Q, R, U, P. 

It is the major grid creator. This general 

shape does not represent a specific 

letter apart from providing the necessary 

assistance of constructing accurate block 

letters. 

By counting from a square grid, a rectangle 

comes out of 3×5 squares. This shape 

commands a wider influence on letters such 

as 

Nearly all the letters listed here are 

supported by four straight sides and four 

full right angles in a vertical way. 

After learning about general shapes and how they act to 

form block letters with the guidance provided by a square 

grid. We can now make a brief reassessment of wide and 

narrow types of letters using the table here below: 

Wide letters and 

Narrow letters and

Lowercase 

The lowercase alphabets are constructed in a smaller form 

as compared to upper cases. In Swanson's (2000, 105) 

typography of lower and uppercase: “Words are perceived 

by their specific word-shape outline, which is unique for 

lowercase ... one researcher found that more reading errors 

were made in reading lowercase words than words set in all 

caps, indicating that all caps words are indeed read letter by 

letter, while lowercase words are not.” 

It is absolutely important for the learner to first of all look 

and judge the different ways—lowercase letters can fit on a 

well composed design or sentences before putting then to 

any final use. 

Let us use the table below to make a clear analysis of the 

stylistic representation of lowercase (type) and how they 

appear with straight and round strokes: 

Round and/or with a stroke 

Round, straight strokes above and below 

Straight, round and open strokes 

Upright, straight with a single stroke 

Straight with slanting or oblique strokes 

Use a sketch book and draw each letter carefully. Pay 

attention to the extremely useful strokes (above and below 

on specific letters) be mindful of their individual shapes as 

well as the different ways each letter can cause an impact 

on a word or sentences. You can make your own grid of 

squares. 

Layouts 

This is an aspect of design that deals with arrangements of 

text or pictures on a set out page. Layouts are characterised 

by constant changes, they can be vertical, horizontal or 

radial. 

A reasonable conclusion of a functional layout can be 

reached after considering expected out comes of the final 

design, in addition to how the absolute layout shall be 

displayed. The effectiveness of a layout can be determined 

by the feasibility of its implementation to users along with 

their ability to follow a logical path of identifying the most 

important in a design created. 

Lidwell et al. (2010, 198) assert. “In fact, complex information 

requires the simplest presentation possible, so that 

the focus is on the information rather than the way it is 

presented.” That is to say, a lay out page persistently goes 

through a process of arranging text, images or both for 

an optimal balance. This course of action is matched with 

various elements and principles of design. A careful look 

at newspaper layouts suggests a surprising display of well 

laid out text, usually accompanied by illustrations, both in 

different sizes and colours on different page displays. This 

causes ordinary readers to wonder how individual parts 

were delightfully co-ordinated to fit proportionally on each 

page without influences of misguided judgement. 

Let us assume that the type of layout you plan is meant for 

a poster; vary the words or text accordingly and probably 

put emphasis to the most important—decide on what 

should stand out most. In Lidwell et al.'s (2010, 86) view, 

“the strongest exposure effects are seen with photographs, 

meaningful words, names and shapes and the smallest 

effects are seen with icons, people and auditory stimuli.” 

Layout C 

90 91 

Layout A 

Layout B 

A: Symmetrical 

B: Asymmetrical 

C: Radial

We can conclude with Dabner et al.'s (2009, 42) 

enlightenment: “Your aim is both to present information in a 

logical, coherent way and to make the important elements 

stand out ... this helps the reader to absorb information in a 

visually pleasing way, which enhances the communication 

of the content” on a design of a layout. 

Types of layouts 

Layouts are different. Thereby, they exist in various complex 

orientations. Here is a general review of the various types of 

layouts: 

a) Symmetrical layouts are made up of parts that are 

exactly similar or facing each other. Graham (2005, 56) 

alleges, “Symmetrically balanced layouts are those 

with visual elements mirrored from side or from top to 

bottom.” Generally, symmetrical layouts are habitually 

used in novels—on pages. 

b) Radial layouts are mainly shaped like a wheel or they 

often appear in circular form. They are commonly used 

for presenting radial graph visualisations. Although 

radial layouts are not easy to read, designers prefer 

them for logo designs. In other words, they are not 

clear enough to be effortlessly read. Look for the 

five-ring Olympic symbol. 

c) Asymmetrical layouts display parts or aspects of 

a design—not in an equally arranged manner. As 

Graham (2005, 58) argues, “creating such a layout is 

more challenging ... since each individual element used 

in a design must be considered.” By careful analysis, 

asymmetrical layouts do not have an axial symmetry 

because they are spontaneous; they display an optimal 

balance that is delicate and difficult to analyse. 

How elements and principles of 

design can be used on layout designs 

The various ways in which creative designers put to use 

elements and principles of design on layouts naturally differ. 

According to Arntson (2011, 127), a “layout is a balancing act 

that creates unity among the diverse elements on a page 

... unity can also be established by finding similar shapes, 

angles, values and typestyles.” Comprehensively, then, on 

layout designs, a creative artist can effectively use elements 

of design such as colour, shape, texture and lines to generate 

and/or organise design ideas in early stages. 

Here is a review of elements of design and how they can be 

used on layouts: 

92 93 

Shape 

Line 

Texture 

Colour 

Layout designers use shape to ascertain the 

orientation of a page. Some pages are used in a 

vertical (portrait format) or horizontal (landscape 

format). 

Is probably one of the most important elements 

of design commonly used on layouts. Line 

enhances the visual quality of style or type. It also 

produces an effect of the kind like; a reasonable 

spectacle of a well-planned layout 

Can be formed with text or the main body of 

words. Otherwise, we can assume texture on a 

layout by analysing spaces between sentences 

and weight of text against headlines. Sometimes 

texture is established by dots and how they form 

images on distinct layouts. (See dpi) 

It is used to enhance mood on layouts. Lidwell 

et al. (2010, 48) assert, colour “is used to attract 

attention, it groups elements, it indicates 

meaning and it enhances aesthetics.” Here we 

see that even with a small amount of colour on a 

layout, a page can be visually enhanced. 

Among others, layouts function well with principles 

of design, which apply to every single—specified 

arrangements or format. Besides a significant number of 

principles of design are used on layouts. Some of these 

include: proportion, emphasis, rhythm and balance. 

Let us make a short review of the possible ways in which 

principles of design can be used on layouts: 

It can be creatively used to call the reader's 

attention and interest by arranging the most 

important design aspects to appear prominent 

Emphasis 

(stand out) on layouts and by using colour on 

text, making words bold as well as using vibrant 

colours on illustrations. 

According to Michael (2006, 191), “artists use 

rhythm to give movement to the manner in 

which our eyes move over a work of art and to 

Rhythm control the pace at which our gaze travels.” In 

essence, rhythm brings about movement caused 

by abstract association of elements of design like 

lines and/or colours on a layout.

Proportion 

It can be used to work out a balance of parts 

on a layout. That is to say, the importance of 

proportion on layouts is closely related with 

generate a response which will enable him to make his 

personal contribution to what is provided by a client or 

outside source. Most importantly, this require showing 

balance. 

careful consideration of both text, the verbal content of the 

Balance 

Allows stability and proper correlation of parts 

on a layout. That is to say, it makes a layout to 

appear in proper proportions and for a required 

design. Michael (2006, 191) asserts, “When the eye 

brief and context, the situation in which the drawing is to 

be used, whether it is a magazine or newspaper.” 

This statement shows that, making an Illustration requires 

is attracted equally to the various imaginary axes 

creative artists to make sense of written words in a design 

of a composition, the design is considered to be 

balanced.” 

and the type of audience it is intended for. Thus, be mindful 

of the culture, geographical location, social status, religion 

In spite of the fact that this list seems to be inadequate, 

individual demands of a layout design dictate the full extent 

of limits and choices of principles and elements of design 

needed during the process of arranging layouts. 

and age for the readership or audience. 

Learners who carry on school tasks are to a large extent 

advised to use, or paint illustrations with few colours; not 

more than three. In series of steps regulated by painting 

techniques—commonly referred to as flat colours (block or 

Illustration 

spot colour). A flat colour makes provision for printing with 

This is the pictorial part of a design. Illustrations can be 

one type of ink. 

produced as drawings, paintings, photographs as well as 

That is to say, using poster colour to paint a design is a 

words or texts. 

medium preferred by nearly all art and design schools, 

Some artists specialise in drawing illustrations alone. They 

which engage in executing design tasks involving painting 

make drawings in imaginative realism showing stories in 

on a surface like a paper. Poster colours are different from 

a single artwork; using lines and tones or by painting in 

other transparent watercolours, as they do not rely on the 

various techniques. To understand the art of storytelling— 

apparent brightness of the paper for their tints. Otherwise, 

where artists use illustrations to compose and tell stories, 

poster colour can only be tinted by mixing or adding more 

look for Norman Rockwell's paintings. 

white paint to lighten the base colour, or add black to 

In a spontaneous manner, nearly all artworks and designs 

darken it. The ideal reason of encouraging—use of (spot) 

done for advertising necessitate lively illustrations, effective 

flat colours is that; it is cheap and less complicated to print. 

use of colours and concise use of texts, on well organised 

As a learner, stay away from using markers and pens for the 

layouts. Lidwell et al. (2010, 184) encourages us to “use the 

time of painting your graphic design or artwork. Do enough 

picture superiority effect to improve the recognition and 

practice by painting with a brush and water colours in order 

recall of key information. Use pictures and words together 

to improve your skills of painting and mixing colours. 

and ensure that they reinforce the same information for 

Poster colours are very easy to mix in small amounts 

optical effect. Pictures and words that conflict create 

of water and you will have both high quality and high 

interference and dramatically inhibit recall. Consider the 

quantity, which is enough for a decent smear to paint a 

inclusion of meaningful pictures in advertising campaigns 

fairly large size area of a design. Markers and pens can only 

when possible, especially when the goal is to build 

be endorsed for writing—in some hard to reach areas 

company product and brand awareness.” Here we see that 

of a design as well as enhancing decorative treatments. 

illustrations are necessary for remembering and they also 

Whenever markers and pens are used for painting a design; 

help us to interpret messages as well as awakening our 

they tend to show differing varieties of regrettable tonalities 

reactions. 

of non-uniform colours. Nonetheless, markers and pens do 

Ashwin (1982) notes, “the illustrator must be able to read 

not provide subjective judgement to examiners who aim 

perceptively, to listen closely to verbal instructions and 

at preparing learners with adequate skills of mixing and 

applying different kinds of paints. 

94 95

Types of illustrations 

There are very many types of illustrations or pictures well 

adapted for specified purposes or to be used in various 

designs. The most common types of illustrations are those 

that we see with a title or a brief explanation appended 

to explain them, other illustrations work on their own. 

“Pictures are remembered better than words ... it is said that 

a picture is worth a thousand words and it turns out that in 

most cases this is true” (Lidwell et al. 2010, 184). 

Most importantly, illustrators compose illustrations for 

companion graphic designs—which function in different 

ways such as: 

a) Pictorial with text illustrations show a single word 

(into) the actual design. Sometimes such illustrations 

are not easy to read/interpret because they are usually 

created to depict a definite image of a representative 

design. That is to say, a word or its meaning is designed 

to appear as the actual illustration or the illustration is 

represented as a word. 

b) Textual illustrations are speciously made to appear 

like a decorative pattern, repeated with a text or a 

word. Some designers use textual illustrations as a 

watermark text. It is typically used on (paper) bank 

notes when un-authorised usage is suspected. Hence, 

they are made in different ways for various purposes. 

c) Silhouettes are illustrations, which appear in shapes 

alone without details. They are typically shaded with 

one solid colour (usually black). Creative artists or 

designers generally use silhouette illustrations to make 

logo designs. 

d) Cartoons are illustrations of fine art images sketched 

or painted in a humorously exaggerated way. In 

every case, cartoons are made for entertaining— 

in depictions of humans or animals, cars as well as 

everything else found in our normal surroundings. 

Cartoon illustrations are commonly found in 

newspapers, comic books and magazines. In a different 

way; also on television broadcasts. 

Read further about gags, animations and comics. They 

are topics for further enquiry. 

e) Pictorial illustrations can be found in newspaper or 

magazines, which contain many pictures. They can be 

photographic or realistic hand drawings—considering 

beauty and correctness. For the most part, such 

pictorial illustration are drawn or painted for use in 

classrooms during teaching. Like all other illustrations, 

pictorial illustrations can also be used on commercial 

posters. 

How to make an illustration 

Not only artists or designers make illustrations. In some way 

each one of us has done an illustration to clarify a statement 

or explain a situation in a comprehensible way—without 

conscious reasoning. 

Prust (2010) notes, “Illustrations add another dimension 

to the layout; they can increase an understanding of 

the product, as well as interest in the product.” They are 

important artworks of a design. For, they make a design 

attractive and clear. 

To create an illustration, start by making ready a fresh 

page inside a sketchbook and by using a sharpened pencil 

or pen, draw a translation of a pictorial representation in 

outlines basing on the set out views and narration of a 

chosen task. For example, if the task you are carrying on is 

about a fashion show, the illustration must indicate some 

distinctive attributes of fashion. This may as well include 

certain symbolic meanings—to colours chosen for the final 

design. Or if the task has mentioned that is a“birthday“ 

then, the colours chosen must at least describe fun. 

Where possible look out for ideas from some of the already 

done sketches in your sketchbook to supplement with 

those you already have. Other sources can be newspapers, 

books and magazines. Make several sketches. 

96 97 

Textual 

illustration 

Cup 

Pictorial with text 

illustration 

A cartoon

Illustrations can be done as painting artworks, collage 

and weaving. They can also be combined with text. 

Make sufficient consultations from friends about which 

illustration would be better than another. 

Some illustrations are meant to be done in collaborative 

projects to achieve particular learning aims. That being the 

case, ask for advice or comments from a decision maker at 

hand, or art director about where to choose from and why. 

Basing on the opinions provided, make possible changes 

before adding colours. Avoid proximity of strong colours— 

near the illustration. In other words, leave some empty 

(white) spaces. Empty gaps or spaces are absolutely 

necessary for they result into breathing space. 

According to Larned's (1925, 99) importance of white areas; 

“The illustrative feature will profit by white space. In many 

instances, the picture without a background is vastly 

preferable to one in which every inch of space is cluttered.” 

White areas provide the eyes with breathing spaces. Thus, 

even as it may be essential to use strong colours in a design, 

knowing how to use them—has a profound effect on the 

success of a destined illustration or design. 

How to explain a visual/identification symbol 

It is not so easy to assign a particular meaning to each and 

every visual or identification symbol, except if a designer 

started by trying to examine some hidden facts concerning 

particular details found in each one of them. 

Hidden facts are almost certainly used as the guiding 

aspects which stir up actual meanings of an existing visual 

or identification symbol. For instance, we all see letters as 

individual characters, but characters are concrete symbols. 

They hide meanings and functions in abstract symbols. But 

it's not until graphic designers make a clear translation of 

those meanings that observers and readers will manage to 

interpret them. 

Equally, as we have previously stated visual or identification 

symbols MUST be brief, simple and easy to interpret. 

In Lidwell et al.'s (2010, 288) Stickiness, “simplicity can be 

expressed simply and succinctly, without sacrificing depth.” 

That is to say, visual designs and identification symbols are 

easy to understand when they are depicted with “clarity” 

or “straightforwardness.” On the other hand, it is as well 

fundamental for a designer to make efforts of testing 

the obtained design in small, or in suitable large sizes on 

surfaces that cause delight and satisfaction to a prototype. 

On the contrary, visual adaptations such as trademarks, 

word messages; are ordinarily associated with one single 

word logo. White (2002, 242) states that a logo “comes from 

a Greek term.” It is “widely used to indicate all corporate 

trademarks ... or a combination of marks (symbols).” For this 

reason, do not be surprised to find a badge, an emblem, 

coat of arms, monogram marked out as a logo. 

Certainly, visual adaptations of identification symbols, 

which are easy to understand, support a rapid mutual 

comprehension for users. Moreover, throughout the 

course of designing visual and identification symbols, it is 

sometimes necessary to integrate some details of deception 

to avoid forgeries. Thus, will put control to un-authorised 

reproductions. 

In conclusion, the meanings of words stated in the tables 

indicated below are only relevant and limited to academic 

or educational objectives. Altogether, some explanations 

may reveal exact meanings as proclaimed by the following 

books: The Penguin, Dictionary of Art and Artists (1997), as 

well as Macmillan Essentials Dictionary for Learners of English 

(2000). 

Monogram 

It is a decorative design created by using the first 

letter of one's name, institution or company— 

in an interwoven way. Monograms are easy to 

make if a designer is excellent with drawing 

letters or writing calligraphy. 

- Make a list of monograms you know. 

It is a symbolic object—designed for 

well-judged aims or aspirations. Emblems serve 

specified groups of people, associations, a 

nation, a family and organisations as visual representations. 

- Look out for examples of Emblem items and 

list them. 

It is almost identical to a label because it 

functions by sticking it onto a surface; of a 

car body, medicine containers and foodstuff 

packages. In our case, a sticker is a piece of 

(plastic) paper used for decorating surfaces. It 

is commonly used to show visual information, 

pictures and words. Today stickers are used for 

advertising; on billboards and signposts. 

98 99 

Emblem 

Sticker

Certificates 

Cassette/ 

CD slipcase 

Notice sign 

Road sign 

Brand 

Are numerous. Our focus shall be set on 

documents awarded for certified achievement 

and by the virtues of marriage, birth, sports and 

ending an academic course or training. 

Thus, a certificate is an official document used, 

or issued by authorities to provide clearance as 

well as evidence that particular facts are true. 

Is a small piece of paper used inside—under a 

CD pack to cover and classify compact disks, or 

a cassette tape and to reveal its contents and 

name. Cassette slips routinely show a cover 

image, titles and lists of files, documents or album's 

title tracks. For instance, a music CD slipcase puts 

on display lists of songs as well as images of the 

implying musician or contents. 

It incorporates a wide range of meanings. Some 

notices are found on pages of newspapers or 

magazines, even on public message-boards. 

In our analysis, a notice sign is a displayed 

sheet or placard used for showing important 

information and message to the public or 

concerned people. 

Notices are also used for public warnings. For 

example NO SMOKING, NO WAY THROUGH and 

DANGER et cetera. 

This is a word commonly used to explain traffic 

signs. Road signs provide useful information 

to pedestrians, drivers and riders by displaying 

clear functional visual symbols. They are 

sometimes designed from a single letter, a single 

image or a brief text. 

Once in a while, they display itemised images, 

in brilliant colours—to work as symbols in 

replacement of long sentences or words. 

And they are specially designed to suit various 

international standards like; upright positioning 

and placement at specified road side areas. 

A brand can be a supplier's name given to a 

seller (retailer) to sell its products or services. For 

example, Bata (for Bata shoe company) and 

Shell (Petroleum company). 

Steele (2010; 848) uses a perplexing explanation 

that “a logo is the point of entry to the brand.” As 

an example Coca-cola and Pepsi-cola are seen 

as logos but they represent brand names for 

soft drinks. Occasionally, a brand is used as the 

identifying mark to promote a range of products 

belonging to the same area. 

- Read further about a brand in order to compare 

label, trademark and logo. 

100 101 

Coat of 

arms 

Billboard 

It has some similarities with an emblem. 

Chorzempa (1987, 6) offers a rational 

explanation: “The most important component 

of a coat of arms is the shield. Almost every 

shape has been used, both in heraldry and in 

combat ... the surface of the shield is called the 

field ... Men alone used a shield in their heraldry 

achievements; because it was used in a warfare 

in which women did not participate ... women 

used lozenges.” 

This tells us that coat of arms are commonly 

found with a shield and other armorial bearings 

described or regulated as symbols for a person, 

family, corporation, country, place of worship. 

It is a huge display used for outdoor advertising. 

Billboards typically display three aspects: (i) the 

name of a product, (ii) an illustration and (iii) a 

slogan or catchword. 

Billboards are meant to remind and to inform 

the public, consumers or buyers. Korza & Magie 

(1989, 69) concur, “Billboards are useful to 

remind the public but they are not effective for 

first time information.” Thus making most of the 

design aspects found on common bill boards to 

appear straight forward—for easy interpretation, 

in well suited displays, in public places, spaces, 

or a spot/location near main roads, for the 

reason that readers of billboards are by and large 

commuters, motorists and travellers. 

- Read more from outdoor signs. Or compare 

a billboard with a sign post and state their 

differences. 

An image 

showing 

a typical 

arrangement 

of a billboard.

Logo 

Trade Marks 

Label 

Notice sign 

School 

Badge 

4 km 

Name of the School 

P.o. Box 

Telephone 

Location 

Monogram 

Church 

Coat of arms 

Road sign 

Hospital 

S 

School 

Community 

Center 

Signposts 

102 103 

Trade 

Mark(s) 

Banner 

Logo 

Labels 

Stamp 

It can be a registered brand name, symbol, 

words or message that stand for a particular 

company commonly used on its products. A 

trademark is recognised by a conventional mark 

to indicate that it is legally protected. Examples 

of such a mark are represented with ® to mean 

registered, (т) or standing for Trade Mark. 

- Try to single them out from a few design items 

near you. 

In our set of circumstances, a banner is a wide 

piece of cloth suspended between two poles 

to convey a printed message; using few words 

and attractive colours. In another way, banners 

also appear on distinct visual designs and 

identification symbols such as badges, emblems, 

newspapers and web sites. 

- Read more about banners before you go ahead 

with any assignment. 

According to Gilmurray (2010, 11), “A logo is your 

brand name ...” Not the other way around; 'A 

logo is only a brand if it's on a cow.' Hence, the 

word logo has numerous meanings. It is can 

be designed from a name, ambitions, ideas, 

numbers or letters as a distinguishing symbol 

representing an entire word. For example, Cel-Tel 

(the word comes from two statements Cell phone 

and Telecommunication) 

- Make a list of logos that you know. 

Carry a wide range of meanings. Labels can 

be made to work like stickers or tags used 

on the sides of packages and other items to 

show information, instructions and contents 

belonging to individual products. Also, a label 

can be used to display a brand name, trade 

name, trademark, product make and a logo on 

displayed shop items. 

Make your own analysis about labels and list 

some of the examples you know. 

They are very many types of stamps designed for 

different purposes. In this discussion, emphasis 

shall be put on small pieces of papers, which are 

mainly bought to be stack on envelopes in order 

to pay for the costs of posting a letter or parcel. 

As a creative artist make sure that the final 

results of your stylistic representation of a stamp 

is closely connected to the demands set by the 

task. 

- Mention or list in detail the types of stamps 

that you know.

Signpost 

It is a display used to guide road users. 

Occasionally, signposts are set out to show 

information such as; the location and name of a 

place. They are found on road-sides, crossroads, 

paths, or streets to lead users to specified 

destinations with clear text, or illustrations. Some 

signposts display additional contact information 

like the address, phone and email. 

- Does your school have a signpost? 

- Compare a signpost with a road sign and state 

their differences. 

We can make our conclusion with Smith's (1993, 58) Basic 

graphic design to summarise visual and identification 

symbols; “The graphic requirements ... may not need many 

images. The design is possibly intended to clarify and 

organise with a concern for continued reader interest ...” 

All this must be carefully understood by learners before 

embarking on any new graphic design artwork, task or 

assignment. 

How to design a card 

There are so many types of cards; some cards are made with 

decorative borders in small sizes and/or sometimes in larger 

sizes. However, nearly all standard cards display a single 

side or double sides containing meaningful messages, 

illustrations and information intended for various set out 

aims. 

Thereby, cards are different and they are created for very 

many purposes. For example business or visiting cards, 

greetings cards and Christmas cards. We can take a double 

page success card as our example. Such a card will display 

two sides just like book covers. 

Success cards show messages and many of them are 

designed to display relevant or connected colours as well 

as illustrations; basing on functions and purposes they are 

meant to serve. 

Accordingly, inside a success or a greeting card, messages are 

usually evocative. That is to say, the message written in a 

card is expected to bring strong memories or feelings to the 

beneficiary or receiver. And outside on the cover of a card, 

the message is usually (or supposed to be) brief and precise, 

sincere and well-expressed. 

Even though illustrations are routinely found on the 

front part of a card, the ultimate methods of executing a 

successful design is up to the inventiveness or creativity 

of the designer. Above all, some creative designers use 

approaches of collage art to produce cards. 

In general, read and understand all instructions stated for 

a specified card task or theme. The most important thing 

for the designer is to pay attention to the title (theme) 

of the card. For, it will guide you to determine a suitable 

Illustration, colours and text. Then make decisions for the 

most appropriate orientation. A card can be designed in 

vertical or longitudinal orientations. 

At an appropriate stage of incorporating text Galbreath 

(2008, 37) suggests, “the formal character of centred text 

also makes it appropriate for wedding invitations, ... and the 

type of verse that appears inside greeting cards.” Here we 

see that the appropriate way of presenting messages in a 

card, is by placing it in the middle. At this stage a designer is 

expected to assess the suitability of calligraphy writing for a 

card in plan. 

In a subsequent way, compare the executed design with 

other types of cards, which may be reasonably similar to the 

one you are making. Then, do necessary changes. 

As you work to execute a card, take the sketch to various 

concerned people for more advice, opinions; exchange 

views about your design plan. It does not matter even 

if they do not have rational ideas about the card. The 

discussions or critiques can help the learner to see errors, 

thus minimise misinterpretations. 

Considering that everything is properly done, finish and 

make the card ready for display. 

How to design a poster 

Posters are sometimes referred to as billboards. To a bigger 

extent, posters are habitually used for outdoor advertising. 

Posters can be produced by ways of—photography, 

lithography, silk screen printing, block printing as well as 

digital printing on large-format printers. 

The main purpose of a poster is to visually communicate 

printed or written message. 

As a consequence of that, posters are typically displayed 

in public places. They are expected to be striking and 

noticeable. A poster is considered to be among the 

most suitable means of making announcements and 

advertisements intended to inform the general public. 

104 105

Michaels (2010) points out some “five characteristics of a 

good poster” using the following design expectations: 

Does the job 

quickly 

Gets reader's 

attention 

It is convincing 

Simplicity 

Effective use of 

colour 

The poster must be attractive enough to 

bring in your targeted customers. 

The poster must be interesting with enough 

formation that pertains to suited subjects. 

The message is short, with strong 

statements to back up what it claims. 

The most effective posters are surprisingly 

simple and straight forward. 

The poster must contains a colour scheme, 

which can attract more viewers. 

Subsequently, a poster can be designed to carry “... a single 

image and three words of texts ... to be powerful enough 

to encourage members of the public to kill themselves” 

Barnard (2005, 3) laments. 

Distinctively, posters can as well work like transportation 

signs. Although, by asserting the opposite—transportation 

signs are in general designed to appear like small posters 

for the reason that, they are displayed inside passenger 

trains, buses and taxicabs. Sometimes they serve as small 

stickers containing longer or detailed messages. Reason 

being, travellers or passengers have more time to read 

the messages (they bear) during the course of a journey. 

Ultimately, learners should be warned about the dangers of 

making small and horizontal posters. 

Such posters do not allow fast drivers or concerned 

pedestrian to have a proper or satisfactory glance—to read 

and interpret a message. That is to say, it is strenuous for 

targeted readers to peruse or read a horizontal poster glued 

on a utility pole by walking around. Thus is the apparent 

reason as to why the majority of posters are designed to be 

displayed in a vertical way; to fit well on advertising boards, 

walls, walkway and trees in public places— along visible 

street spots. 

If the purpose intended for designing a poster lies on an 

event such as a concert, include the date, ticket prices, a 

venue as well as illustrations or images. Thereby, a creative 

artist may choose to greatly pronounce the name of the 

most famous person—who will steal a march on events to 

come. 

We can conclude poster designing with Lidwell et al.'s 

(2010, 198) “readability” principle. They remind us to “express 

complex ... in the simplest way possible by following guide 

lines, which can enhance and verify readability level and 

approximates of the intended audience.” 

How to design a badge 

Badges are creatively composed in very many well-judged 

design plans. Designers who create badges start by 

acquiring and developing a clear enlightenment of 

purposes or functions of the expected design. Some badges 

are made for schools, army or police and organised societies, 

businesses and associations. 

Sometimes designers confuse badges with emblems 

because they are not easy to distinguish. As a creative artist, 

it is essential for you to understand that before you begin to 

sketch. Exchange cognate views with a person concerned. 

It can be a teacher, friends, or the owner of a badge; to 

clarify and/or review the purpose of the design as well as its 

appearance. 

At this stage Mead (2008, 30-31) suggests, “investigate the 

symbolism of your school ... badge. Inspect closely and 

thoroughly the hidden messages in a range of logos or 

symbolic colours of clothing” for instance uniforms. They 

will guide you on how to identify icons, which shall appear 

in your design of a badge as well as necessary colours. 

Certainly if a badge is designed to promote the identity 

of a school or an institution like those mentioned in our 

previous analysis. Put some obligatory attention to symbolic 

colours which tie-up with the matter at hand. 

Most schools share instructional mandates and activities. 

For example, nearly all schools provide knowledge and skills 

through education to improve the intellectual capabilities 

of the learner. Thus, all this and more can be used to 

formulate some desired icons for a badge. 

Lidwell et al. (2010, 132) remind us that “iconic representations 

reduce performance load ... when representations 

are to be used ...” That is to say; your 

planned badge should display a summary of some 

desired ambitions that are relevant to the stated 

subject matter. 

106 107 

Banner 

Banner 

A specimen 

of a school 

badge 

Shield 

Icons

An example 

of a book 

cover layout 

By understanding the definition and process of making a 

badge, the same series of actions can be adopted to design 

emblems, trademarks and logos, “... if you favour simple 

elements and icons that are rich in meaning.” (Lidwell et al. 

2010, 190) 

On the other hand, even though some school badges are 

designed to display icons that represent common shields, 

banners, keys and books. Such ideas are conceptual. 

Essential ideas and proposals for a possible course of action 

are based on individuals' creative decisions. 

How to design a book cover 

A book cover is a thick protective outer page of a book. 

Galbreath (2008, 42) is more enlightening: “If your book is 

for sale, the cover is an essential marketing device that will 

function like a logo and advertisement. A book cover must 

look great—inside a book store and on the shelf. It also has 

to look good when it's a tiny digital image on Amazon and 

other online sites.” For that reason a book cover is the main 

aspects of admiration for any book. Nevertheless, without 

a cover there is nothing we can know about what the book 

may contain. 

Consequently, on the front part of a book cover, it is 

reasonable to find the title, illustration and names of authors. 

In the opinion of Bjornard et al. (2008, 56), “the title of a 

book does not have to be huge.” In spite of that, “it must 

stand out.” Designers achieve this by “creating variations of 

colours and contrast” on the cover of a book. 

The middle part of a book cover is commonly referred 

to as the spine. Binding makes page hinges to get fixed 

on a spine by ways of stapling, gluing, tying or fastening 

et cetera. Nonetheless, not all books have spines. Books 

without spines include, newspaper pull outs and tabloids. 

The main purpose of a spine is to fascinate a user of the 

book. The spine can be used to displays a title, name of the 

author, editor, the publisher and/or the publisher's logo. 

They are all necessary to serve the user of the book when it 

is put on a display shelf. 

At the back part of the book cover—it is the page area 

where we sometimes find a written summary about subject 

matter fulfilments; explaining the biographical matter about 

the author of the book or quotes from people and other 

sources praising the book. 

In instances where the author’s portrait is required, 

designers usually put it at the back page of the book 

cover. As a learner, place a great deal of emphasis on the 

requirements set by the task. 

Some book covers are occasionally protected with book 

jackets (dust jacket or a sheath). 

Here is a set out table providing a concise and clear 

summary of a book cover: 

108 109 

Flaps for a sheath 

Flaps for a sheath 

Back 

1. Publisher's logo 

and name 

2. Subject matter 

fulfilments 

Spine 

1. Title 

2. Author 

3. Publisher's logo 

Front 

1. Title 

2. Author and/or 

edition 

3. Illustration 

As a creative artist you can use your own ways to put the illustration. For 

instance, it can be created to stretch out and fill up the whole cover or put 

it at the front part alone. 

A book cover and a dust jacket—both, may usually contain 

resembling designs, although book jackets have extra 

separate sections commonly known as flap overlaps. Flap 

overlaps are loose extensions of a book jacket; they hold it 

up well by wrapping the surface of an actual book cover to 

keep it safe from easy wear and tear. 

To make a book jacket Harden (1996, 34) remarks, “measure 

round the book from cover to cover, including the spine 

using your ruler and pencil mark this width on the inside of 

the jacket paper, allowing an extra margin of 2 inches (5cm) 

on either side. Trim the jacket to the right size.” Here we see 

that the learner will as well gain the skills of creating covers 

necessary for his or her own school books. Such a cover may 

not necessarily have a design which matches with the book 

cover.

The ultimate goal of designing a book cover is to attract or 

to capture attention and to awaken our interest of finding 

the book up and read it from a shelf. 

Bjornard et al. (2008, 56) discern this point: “the cover is the 

first thing; a potential reader will see ... book covers help to 

sell books and make them memorable.” Hence is the reason 

as to why book covers should be highly appreciated. 

How to make a repeat pattern 

A repeat pattern is a design created with the help of a motif. 

The word repeat pattern can be defined separately in this 

way. Repeat to mean reproduce and pattern to explain 

decorative design. 

Repeat patterns give rise to sets of designs created from 

a motif; repeating in a delightful manner on appealing 

surfaces such as fabrics, curtains, wall papers, carpets, table 

cloth. In Linderman's (1984, 188) view, “a repeated pattern 

is often involved with other qualities, such as colour, line, 

shape, positive and negative spaces, lights against darks. In 

nature we see patterns everywhere—a branch, a group of 

flowers, the cluster of leaves.” 

Clearly, then, creative artists who wish to come up with 

fascinating repeat patterns—start by creating motifs— 

identified from anything just for a source of inspiration. As 

we have already mentioned, nature boasts with a greater 

abundance of essential ideas which can be sketched to turn 

them into motifs necessary for executing repeat patterns. 

For instance plants, insects and animals can be sketched as 

a study or studies to form a design for a repeat pattern. 

Accordingly, the obtained sketch can later be adjusted in 

order to reach a desired standard of performance suitable 

for creating a motif. Almost always, nearly all sturdy ideas 

composed for a preferred motif—appear as abstract and 

sometimes silhouettes. 

Thus, do not fear to purposefully exaggerate your ideas 

at the stage of developing a sketch. Make sure that the 

motif you have created holds a meaning that relates to 

the prevailing subject matter. That is to say, at the lowest 

estimate a repeat pattern meant for a hospital wall paper 

should show images and colours that symbolise healing 

and well-being. 

Remember that a successful repeat pattern appears well 

with correctly balanced negative spaces and sufficient 

positive shapes as well as repetition of textures. Eventually, 

if a design of a motif is well composed, it will repeat well at 

the stage of printing particularly if it contains registration 

marks or corner crop marks. 

Torbet (1980, 312) asserts, “... registration marks must be 

planned in advance for all printing procedures. In planning 

the repeat pattern, the way in which each repeat unit will 

join ...” We can conclude from this that, it is important for 

the creative artist to add registration marks on mandatory 

parts, which are capable of working successfully for a design 

of a motif created. Thereby, the repeat pattern shall attain 

sufficient alignments during printing. 

How to compose a wrapper 

There are very many different types of wrappers. Common 

wrappers are those that we use for packaging shop items 

sold in retail and wholesale shops. Wrappers can be 

designed in different ways, sizes or shapes; to protect and 

dress various kinds of products. For example, they can be 

made to look like boxes, envelops as well as bags showing 

decorative designs of products they carry. 

And they are usually made out of different types of 

materials, impressive and identifiable colours. The materials 

used include plastics papers, metal tins, recycled paper 

and cloth. According to Eiseman (2003) “graphic designers 

who develop packaging for consumer products, use 

the brightest intensities of complementary colours.” To 

cheerfully attract the unsuspecting buyers. 

Most wrappers are ornately—made using well decorated 

papers presenting intricate shapes, complex patterns and 

symbolic illustrations, colours and phrases. Unfortunately, it 

is typical for a wrapper (paper or plastic, or packed in a box) 

to be used once. 

According to Natarajan et al. (2009, 3) “in the most familiar 

form, a package is a simple box on the grocer's shelf or 

the wrapper on a candy bar.” Here we see that unlike gift 

wrappers, packaging wrappers consist of sides decorated 

with a label, sometimes a brand name or a trademark, an 

illustration and text with information explaining the content 

inside, on an existing package. 

Ultimately, for any creative artists attempting a task 

regarding wrappers, stick to basic information and details 

stated or required by a task given. 

110 111

For instance, in many situations packaging designs end 

up as three dimensional designs. Thus, a design created to 

serve as a wrapper is not likely to appear like the one meant 

for a package. 

Natarajan et al. (2009, 2-3) add, “Packaging has also been 

described as complex, dynamic, scientific and artistic ... It is 

constantly changing with regard to new materials, methods 

and machinery resulting in better quality products which 

open up new markets ... At the user level, the needed value 

for the added function is different relating to the opinion 

about waste accumulation, energy and use of scarce 

resources.” We can conclude from this that, by designing a 

wrappers we are literally making a package. 

Computer aided printing 

The main features of computer aided printing are 

hardware and software. By software we mean computer 

programs or applications used throughout operations. 

Well as, by mentioning hardware we are referring to tools, 

equipment and machinery. The most important thing about 

computer-aided printing is high speed, ability to track the 

work process and beautiful final designs. 

Hastings (1986, 3) offers a rational explanation: “Before 

using the advanced computer aided design applications 

... you must at least be familiar with the basic ... operating 

procedures such as clicking, dragging and selecting and 

know what is meant by dialogue boxes, windows, icons, 

menus and so on.” Undoubtedly, then, a creative graphic 

designer who is planning to work with computer aided 

printing is at a minimum expected to have necessary 

computer knowledge. Kenly & Beach (2004, 74) assert, 

“images on paper consist of patterns of cyan, magenta, 

yellow and black dots: CMYK for printing. 

This is how CMYK and RGB appear: 

C Cyan Blue R Red 

M Magenta Pink G Green 

Y Yellow Yellow B Blue 

K Black Black 

RGB colours deal with light like; display 

monitors, photo films and ink-jets 

Colorants and toners create different colours by blocking, 

or subtracting, different portions of the white light reflected 

by the paper that they are deposited on.” Regardless of 

the high speed and the good quality brought about by 

computer aided printing. The process allows the operation 

of printing direct from a computer to a digital printer or a 

plate-making machine. 

Black is regarded as the most important colour of CMYK 

used by commercial printers—in the printing industry. To 

the same extent, many office documents are usually printed 

by using a desktop printer. While, “the two most common 

types of printers today include laser printers and ink-jet 

printers ... A laser jet type of printers forms images with 

toner powder (ink powder) and ink-jet printers form images 

with liquid ink” (Morley & Parker 2009; 173) 

Clearly then, computer aided printing is supported by 

technology and it is highly industrial. As you continue to 

read about printing, you will discover very many new and 

advanced methods as a result of new technology. Make 

further consultations from people involved with computer 

aided printing to learn more. 

Methods of printing 

A wide range of printing methods and techniques have 

existed before. For instance, letterpress and offset printing 

are among the many methods which belong to the 

very distant past—of the common methods of printing. 

Nonetheless, today printing can be done straight away 

from a personal computer or a mobile phone to an all-large 

format digital laser jet printer. 

Let us briefly examine the three basic methods used during 

printing: 

a) Relief printing is a method of printing done on a 

raised surface—and then, it is transferred on a paper, 

fabrics, plastics or any other impervious materials. 

Relief printing can be done in the same way as 

woodcuts, or wood engraving, relief etching and 

linocut or lino block. 

More than two colours can be used in relief printing as 

long as a neutral colour band is left until a later time to 

set down first. To a greater extent, the process of relief 

printing uses a similar principle as an inked block of a 

stamp. 

112 113

A raised surface 

b) Intaglio printing uses an incised or etched surface. The 

actions and process of printing involves pulling ink out 

of the narrow (cut) engraved holes. According to Board 

(2002, 342) “... images are engraved or etched below the 

surface. Ink is filled up in the recessed portions. The top 

surface is wiped clean. Ink from the recessed portions 

is transferred on paper.” Here we see that the surface 

of a plate is wiped clean leaving ink in the sunken area. 

During intaglio printing, images are transferred to 

another surface with heavy pressure machines. It can 

be considered as a direct opposite of relief printing. 

c) Planographic printing uses a chemical process as a 

mechanism for producing prints on a flat surface in 

dislikes of water and oil—repels to resist each other. 

Board (2002, 383) explains that “... planography conveys 

the meaning that the printing areas lay in the same 

plane ... It uses similar principles just as “1. Lithography 

principle, 2. Offset principal.” Hence the images are 

printed from a flat surface on same level surfaces as the 

areas without images. 

d) Stencil printing is also known as serigraphy or 

silkscreen printing. Jenkins (2010, 280) argues, “In the 

world of visual art, this technique is called pochoir” 

(in French pochoir means "stencil”). A stencil material 

necessary for making prints can easily be obtained 

from a strong piece of paper or any other thin material 

fit to be glued, stretched straight on a flat surface. By 

using a squeegee, ink is pressed to pass through the 

open holes of a stencil (negative parts) against blocked 

(positive) areas to form a design. 

An incised or 

engraved design 

greasy inked 

image 

Relief printing Planographic printing Intaglio printing 

Commercial printing 

As stated by Galbreath (2008, 116-125), “budget, quality and 

content influence a designers personal skill set, access to 

materials and equipment and how much to invest.” All these 

and more are for the most part essential during commercial 

printing. 

Let us use a supplemental review from Galbreath's (2008, 

118) Types of printing to discuss some possible ways of 

achieving commercial printing by using a table checklist 

here below: 

Photocopy 

Ink jet/colour 

laser 

Offset 

lithography 

Screen print/ 

serigraph or silk 

screen printing 

Digital/Print On 

Demand (POD) 

Letterpress 

This is one of the fastest and cheapest 

way of duplicating text and images on the 

surface of a paper. 

It is not cost effective for larger editions but 

it can provide full colour images by hit of a 

print button. 

It is standard for commercial printing, it is 

also ideal for large quantity prints. Here, 

printing-plates are required for transferring 

each colour during printing. 

It can be used to print very thin texts and 

details on surfaces like paper, fabrics, glass, 

metal and plastics. This method of printing 

is too physical. Apart from that, it cannot be 

used to print books. 

During printing, digital files are interpreted 

electronically—quickly with minimal 

prep time. This method of printing makes 

short-run jobs less expensive than offset 

printing. 

It is excellent for printing fine details and 

small texts. Also, It works with wood and 

metal type. Even when files are digital, they 

can be easily converted into a film and 

burned onto polymer plates to be printed. 

We can also find more about printing from Jenkins’ (1980, 

147-150) Art for the fun of it: to learn more about basic 

printing actions necessary for creative print making “... from 

simple to the complex.” 

By cutting designs on the surface of a wood 

or sticks; ink can be smeared on them to 

Sticks or wood make prints by rolling, twisting, sliding and 

then, by ways of stamping, a print can be 

made on a provide surface. 

114 115

Soap and wax 

Rubber and 

cork 

Vegetables and 

fruits 

Printing with a 

sponge 

Cardboard 

paper 

Leaves 

Mono printing 

Others 

Just like an eraser (rubber), designs can be 

cut or carved using a stick or a knife on the 

surface of soap. Add Ink and then print. 

Because of their soft tissues, designs can be 

easily cut on them. Certainly, most of the 

available ink materials fit well on a rubber or 

cork surfaces for the time of making prints. 

Carrots, cucumber, onions, green pepper, 

mushrooms, oranges and potatoes; cut the 

fruit and immerse the clean and/or smooth 

side—indicating a design into ink. Then 

print. 

Cut a sponge into different geometric 

shapes of your choice; immerse the shapes 

in paint or ink. Carefully, make prints by 

stamping on a clean paper surface. Read more 

about a Loofah sponge in Painting Techniques. 

Shapes of designs can be cut from 

a cardboard to be glued on another 

cardboard surface to appear like a raised 

shape of an image or picture. By using a 

brush, paint can be smeared on the image. 

Place a paper on top. Lift it off carefully after 

some time to see the executed print. 

They are among found objects. They can 

be glued on a cardboard and by using a 

brush apply paint or ink on one side of the 

surface and then print. You can consider 

natural objects like seaweed, feathers or 

shells in a similar way to make more printing 

experiments. 

This method of printing produces one 

print. Although, it can accommodate lots of 

colours. An image with varied colours is put 

below a clean glass panel, by using a small 

brush and oil paints; you can paint again 

the same image on the top side of the glass. 

Then, place a clean paper or cloth on the 

executed artwork—remove to check your 

attained results. 

A creatively adorned rolling pin, carbon 

papers, fingers/hands, wires, a squashed 

paper et cetera. All these and more can 

be coated with ink to achieve some basic 

knowledge of creating an artistic print. 

In Jenkins' (1980; 146) view, “having the children walk the 

potato (or whatever tool) across a paper and back again, in 

orderly even steps” gives a good learning experience. 

We can conclude from this that after this exploration, the 

creative artist shall have enough and necessary knowledge 

for future decision making about possible way of making a 

print. 

Advertisement 

Advertisement can simply be defined as announcing. Thus, 

it can be done for social, commercial, political and very many 

other notable reasons. Announcing or advertisement helps 

to inform the public and it also gives publicity to products 

or services using different attention catching means like 

a television, radio and notices on message-boards, local 

magazines and newspapers. Generally, most advertisements 

use humour as an emotional appeal to catch attentions of 

targeted audiences. 

Useful ways of advertising 

In the words of Katz (2010, 51), “There are various ways 

of categorizing the media. We can contrast the print 

media of magazines, newspapers and outdoor billboards 

with electronic media—radio, Internet and TV.” Some 

advertisers use exhibitions to draw people's attention and 

to communicate—send messages about new products, 

services, or events. 

Here are some creative ways in which advertising can be 

done effectively: 

a. Text messaging is a method of advertising, which is 

made available by mobile phone service providers. 

Advertisements are transmitted through text messages, 

faxing and by email to phone users by using an out of 

voice service. 

b. Radio is a good approach of announcing products to 

buyers. Since, radio listeners have a possibility of doing 

other things as they listen. In addition, radio listeners 

are easy to select because of the many choices of radio 

programs and radio-stations. 

c. Telephone directories ordinarily contain adverts in 

page sub divisions known as yellow pages. Some of the 

adverts found on these pages are displayed in small or 

full-page layouts—to make known the name, address 

and telephone number of local businesses, individuals 

as well as organisations. 

116 117

d. Outdoor signs are the major visual communications 

or designs used for making outdoor advertisements. 

The benefits of outdoor signs are; they are mainly large, 

colourful, made in simple and precise layouts. 

Distinct, outdoor signs used for advertising include: 

• Transport signs: Read from posters. 

• Window displays are mainly used by shops, which 

sell clothes, shoes, bookstores and electronic 

gadgets. Sometimes, big shops hire display firms 

to design their window displays. 

• Points of sale displays are used to advertise and 

promote new products by using signs, banners, 

posters and other items inside a shop. 

The product or advertisement can be permanent 

or temporary, usually put in particular places— 

clear to see. Point of sale displays draw customers’ 

attention to a (new) product on sale, or special 

offers. Sometimes it is used to promote special 

events like Christmas. 

e. Novelties cost little money and they can be produced 

in very large quantities for aggressive advertising. 

They are items like calendars, bandanas, matchboxes 

and key rings that carry a visual symbol in form of an 

advertiser’s name and a message. Novelties are usually 

given away—free of charge. Otherwise, users are not 

aware that they are acting as advertising points for 

brand owners. For example, by displaying a calendar 

showing your preferred sports team in your room. 

f. Magazines have very many advantages over 

newspapers during advertising. They serve in the same 

ways as a calendar owing to the fact that we read 

them in a leisurely manner and they are often kept 

for weeks or months before throwing them away. For 

that matter, intellectual chances of reading a particular 

magazine is given to several individual members of 

a designated group of people, family, company or 

organisation. Magazines offer better printing and 

colour reproductions than newspapers for advertising. 

As a graphic designer, you deserve to know that some 

magazines appeal to mass audiences and others to a small 

majority of readers. 

Examples of magazine consumers include teenagers, family, 

sports, business and farmers. 

Exercise 

1. Formulate fraternity groups with specified numbers 

of people and discuss a plan of making a corporate 

design system or identity for a new company, or an 

organisation of your own choice. It can be a school, 

hospital, or a society for religious people. 

The following manufactured articles or products, 

advertisements and promotional materials MUST 

appear exactly alike. A logo, the illustration, typography 

and colours used on items like packages, book cover 

design, newspaper or a magazine front, a letterhead, 

an envelope, a business card, a CD, an advertisement 

(poster, signpost, banner, billboard), a wrapping paper, 

office curtains and a web site structure of the proposed 

institution, company or organisation. 

Your final design must be done with a computer apart 

from a sketch. 

As a summary, write a project brief of the corporate 

design for a company or organisation you have chosen 

and explain how each item will function. 

2. Go to Chapter Fourteen and read from Tasks for revision 

118 119

CHAPTER SIX 

Collage 

The word collage comes from a “French word coller meaning 

to glue or paste.”(Jenkins 1980, 108) 

According to Annette (1982), “collage is an arrangement of 

several different shapes, cut or torn from various materials, 

which form a pleasing combination of shapes, textures 

and colours when glued onto a sheet of paper to make a 

permanent picture.” Obviously, then, collage art is made up 

of various collections of things. 

Nevertheless, working to produce a collage artwork is 

governed by serious creativity supported by “pasting” and 

“assembling.” It is the “maximum diversity of source material, 

to produce a coherent artist synthesis.” (Ashwin 1982, 63) 

By analysis, collage art is well made with arrangements of 

thrown away objects, which work as basic materials of its 

different forms. 

We can also see this from Kyeyune's (2003, 215) Art in Uganda 

in the 20th Century denoting this excellent statement: 

“Ssengendo produced a richly colourful imitation style from 

a collection of things lying about in an untidy mass and that 

their portrayal was made easy by a clear physical display 

of shapes in distinct tones and texture, with ridges of fibre 

and feathers.” Here we see that a collage artwork can be 

constructed and defined by analysing shapes, colours and 

textures of different things. 

Walther (2000, 46) reminds us that “it was not until Picasso 

discovered the technique of collage, or 'papier colle,' that 

he started thinking about sculpture ... Sticking papers 

onto a picture, ... a step beyond the strict two dimensional 

character of painting. And when he begun to use other 

materials such as card board, tins, wood, string and wire his 

pictures changed more and more ... ” 

Distinctly, then, learners should be made aware that collage 

art is interdisciplinary, it combines other disciplines of art 

and design like sculpture, painting, pottery and drawing. 

We can conclude with Janis et al.'s (1967, 145) reasonable 

explanation: “Collage brought the world into art and then 

art moved into the world ...” 

Thereby, creative artists should be encouraged to use 

nature as the main source of useful materials. And it can 

as well be a source of inspiration from whence designs of 

collage artwork can be made. 

The table below examines the different parts of plants, 

which can assist to provide remarkable basic materials 

necessary for creating collage art: 

In our environment there are plenty of plants, which can 

provide necessary glue for use on collage and other crafted 

artworks. Trowell (1951, 26) suggests, “if you know any tree 

which gives out a sticky transparent juice, you should try to use 

it as a glue medium.” Here we see that it is important for the 

learner to have the right kind of glue for the different materials 

available to make a collage artwork. 

As an example, boiled cassava paste; made by mixing hot water 

with cassava flour forms a thick paste necessary for fastening 

like glue. During stove preparations, keep the substance 

moderately solid for better bonding results. 

Here below is a proposed list of supplementary craft glues 

and colouring dyes, which are obtainable from plants. Some 

of them can be used to carry out experiments for scarce art 

materials: 

In their book Forest Climbing plants of West Africa; Bongers et 

al. (2005, 171-172) suggested some of these climber species—of 

plants, which can be used for crafting purposes: 

Alchornea cordifolia; the leaves of this plant can procreate an 

indigo colouring material. 

Cryptolepis sanguinolenta; from its roots and the bark. We can 

extract a yellow colouring material for dyeing fabric. 

Lonchocarpus cyanescens (lonchocarpus); the seeds and 

leaves of this plant can produce an indigo colouring. 

Morinda morindoides (Rubiaceae); the roots and the bark 

produce a yellow colouring. 

Oncinotis pontyi; extract liquids from its stem, add lemon juice 

then boil. Strong glue will be attained. Fit for repairing broken 

pots. 

Rhigiocarya racemifera (Menispermaceae); produces glue from 

its fruits. 

Uvaia; a yellow colouring dye can be squeezed from the roots 

and the bark of this plant. 

Canarium schweinfurthii (Mpafu tree); the bark of the tree (on 

the stem) when opened and left for some time it will produce a 

white citron scented gum. 

Other types of craft glue can be purchased. These may include; 

sticker glue, wallpaper paste, glue stick, royal icing, glitter glue, 

tacky glue, white glue, powdered glue and wood glue. 

120 121

A collage artwork 

Materials: Dry leaves 

attached with glue 

and/or threaded 

on the surface of 

a bark cloth 

Surfaces for producing collage can be worn out posters, fabrics, 

card board, particle board, styrofoam trays, sackcloth/canvas, 

wood, cardboard cartons, egg trays, furniture. 

Assorted objects can be buttons, wine corks, old jewellery, 

cotton balls, rice (cereals), plastic bottles, macaroni, old photo 

films, cassettes/CD, wrapping papers, magazine pages, bits of 

coloured or hand-made papers, parts of the artist's artwork, 

photographs et cetera. 

Found objects include thrown away items such as: pieces of 

wood, sticks, seeds, feathers, sand, clay, leaves, seed pods, 

wires, snail shells, pebbles, weeds, egg shells, coloured stones, 

bottle tops, drinking straws, tooth-picks, match sticks, sisal, 

raffia, grass, used bags, tins, shoes, old playing cards, keys, lace 

and shredded paper; are good for making paper machê when 

mixed with starch and thin flour paste. 

In the opinion of Trowell (1951, 7), “equipment and materials 

for teaching art can be very expensive. Yet, with a little 

care and trouble, art can be taught at a very little cost.” 

Undeniably, the cheapest way of executing a collage 

artwork without spending money, is by using found objects. 

Thus, it will give more possibility for the learner to interact 

with their surrounding environment and it is another 

benefit of achieving recycling. 

We can end with Ashiwn's (1982) remarks, “collage is capable 

of a certain amount of visual shock where different sources” 

of materials and ideas often continue to declare their origin 

with in the artist's inspirations and inventiveness. 

Uses of collage 

Collage art is sometimes not easy to understand by 

some creative visual designers, it can be intimidating or 

disturbing. As Rothamel (2000, 9) points out, “collage ... 

can be just as formidable as watercolour, oil painting or 

sculpture.” Certainly, this also indicates that collage art 

serves satisfactorily well in the various art disciplines. 

Jenkins (1980, 108) prefers a different justification: “On why 

do collage? Answered ... it imposes a sense of order on 

random materials.” From this we can understand that, the 

learner who does collage art shall be able to arrange neatly 

and also manage working with various obtainable materials. 

Here is how collage art can be useful: 

• Artists use collage to make beautiful paintings, 

photomontage, weaving as well as—in music. 

• Collage is the most creative way to do art by 

recycling. 

• Collage is undoubtedly the cheapest way to 

produce very expensive artworks. 

• Collage is a branch of study that can be easily 

absorbed or integrated into other art and design 

fields. 

• Collage art is an open power to every learners 

creative potential. It is limitless. 

Characteristics of collage art 

Collage art can be made in two or three dimensional 

forms. The qualities and characteristics of collage art differ 

accordingly. 

Here below is a viewpoint of an itemised list of collage characteristics: 

a. Combined with painting is a characteristic of 

collage—in which (paint) pigments can be reasonably 

merged with other colourful collections of chosen 

collage art materials. Digolo & Mazrui (1988, 35) offers 

a rational opinion; “collage is often combined with 

painting and drawing.” 

b. Texture is almost always generated by the materials 

used in the course of executing a collage artwork. It 

can be realised by touching or seeing. Jenkins (1986, 

110) affirms, “Fingers are the best paste applicators” and 

they give” the most sensory experience.” Certainly, by 

ways of touching different materials, the learner should 

be encouraged “to study the variations in texture and 

colour” for the time of choosing collage materials—of a 

specified artwork. 

c. Multimedia in collage art is explained with an 

aesthetic frame of reference. That is to say, a single 

artwork is produced in more than one medium. Digolo 

& Mazrui's (1988, 29) say, "when two or more techniques 

are used, the method is called multimedia or mixed 

media." Thus, this characteristic of collage art appeals to 

creative artists with knowledge and skills of integrating 

subject matter with various materials of a kind like 

found objects to create collage artworks. 

122 123

A collage 

portrait 

Materials: 

Long narrow 

(cut) slits of 

banana fibers, 

wood glue, 

on a plywood 

board surface. 

d. Superimposing of a collage results from placing and 

laying different materials of two/three dimensions to 

make a collage artwork onto a prevailing surface. 

This characteristic of collage art has got an impact on 

Montage and Photomontage. According to Digolo & 

Mazrui's (1988, 35), “in all ... the materials and pictures 

being used are often juxtaposed and superimposed to 

create interesting effects.” 

e. Three dimensional is common with collage art done 

in fields of sculpture. Some artists refer to threedimensional 

collage as assemblage. Mayesky (2009, 

300) explains, “Assemblage refers to placing a number 

of three-dimensional objects, natural or man-made, 

in juxtaposition to create a unified composition ... 

Assemblage makes use of three-dimensional space, 

resembling a still life arrangement as objects are first 

selected, then arranged...” This is a practice that we very 

often find with collage art. 

Ultimately, if the process of achieving a successful aim 

or purpose of a planned artwork of a collage shows little 

prospects or chances for success. Seek advice from books 

and other collage sources or established masters of collage 

art around you. 

How to make a simple collage 

In Spring's (2008, 88) famous book of contemporary African 

art; Angaza Afrika: African art now, Jorge Diaz an artist from 

Mozambique used collage and acrylic on paper to compose 

his artwork titled Old works in new project. 

The artwork unveils “... images from popular 

culture and the natural world, giving a 

spiritual dimension to everyday materials 

and situations.” Accordingly, Jorge Diaz's 

collage artwork puts creativity forward for 

consideration as a theme to its subject matter. 

Thoughtfully, start to develop a sketch for the 

intended idea of a collage artwork. And make 

ready all necessary materials that meet with 

the required purpose, such as photographs or 

out of date coloured magazines, post cards, a 

brush and water based glue et cetera. 

You can also use banana fibres. They provide a full range of 

colours necessary for creating a collage artwork. 

Assuming that the final product of the artwork created 

was planned; to be constructed with a technique of 

photomontage (or decoupage). 

In decoupage the creative artist is expected to use essential 

photographic images, vintage motifs, product labels, 

floral designs or patterns, magazines and newspapers to 

decorate surfaces like cups, box, lamp shades, furniture and 

papier-mache. 

Pluck out pages and cut them into shapes that can 

be combined for predetermined needs—put special 

importance to elements of design such as textures and 

colours basing on some defined appeals of a task, or a 

sketch. If a certain detail is not suitable or correct, tear or 

deduct it off until when you get pleased with the rightful 

tearing and placement. 

Then, obtain glue and mix it with small amounts of D.D.T 

powder to preserve and protect the artwork from pastes 

or destroying insects. By using a small stick pick glue and 

smudge it under each paper-tear properly. If you get a fold 

in the attained paste up, that may indicate the (paper) 

material used contains some air bubbles. Therefore, use less 

glue. Blot any other existing air bubbles by pushing them 

away with a straight stick in a horizontal way before glue 

dries. “Keep a damp sponge of cloth nearby for leaning 

fingers.” (Jenkins. 1986, 110) 

Cartoons. 

A collage artwork, it 

was carefully made 

with selected torn 

pieces of papers 

(cartoons) from 

news papers 

Materials: Porridge 

(glue), on manila 

paper. 


124 125

Apart from that, excess glue can be cleaned with a 

dampened paper. 

Finish and preserve the collage artwork by varnishing it. 

Varnish is widely used finish decoupage, but you can also 

use lacquered sap. It is obtained from a lacquer-tree and it is 

used for varnishing wood or other materials. 

If lacquer dries well—on a surface, it forms a hard protective 

coating necessary for finishing and embellishment of such 

types of collage artworks. 

At the final stage, find a safe place to keep and dry the 

collage artwork. Depending on the nature of material used, 

the collage artwork can also be sealed or laminated, if 

necessary. 

Exercise 

1. Make a pictorial composition of a collage artwork using 

found objects to educate your community about one 

theme from the provided list below: 

• The need for planting trees 

• Global warming awareness 

• Pollution of the environment 

• The importance of recycling 

• Sickness and disease through HIV-AIDS pandemic. 

CHAPTER SEVEN 

Mosaic 

A mosaic is a type of artwork that can be made by arranging 

small coloured pieces of hard materials like glass, stone and 

tiles to create a beautiful decorative pattern. 

The History of mosaic art (2008) tells us that “mosaic history 

goes back some 4,000 years or more, with the use of 

terracotta cones pushed point-first into a background to 

give decorations.” From this we can understand that any 

hard surface can provide a base for a mosaic artwork so 

long as it is firm, free from moisture and grease or liquids. 

According to Tinkler (1911) “by the eighth century (Before 

Christ), there were pebble pavements with different 

unstructured decorations of coloured stones used for 

creating patterns by the Greeks.” These mosaic artworks 

were used for various purposes like making elaborate 

decorations in worship places especially churches, surfacing 

roads, house floor, walls, decorative utensils and furniture. 

Other creative artists who do mosaic use recycled materials 

from broken coloured pieces of terracotta carefully selected 

from earthenware of a kind like glass, pottery as well as tiles. 

Mosaic artworks are created in different ways, some display 

shapes of precise geometric patterns, while other are 

arranged almost randomly to display or show scenes of 

people and animals. In other words, there is no right or 

wrong choice for making mosaics artworks. 

A further look at mosaic practices from Kyeyune's (2003, 129) 

explanation about Todd's theories in practice offers “Todd’s 

best-known work in Uganda is a mosaic mural exchange and 

barter. In this work we discover that Todd was unambiguous 

in the way he considered and incorporated artefacts of the 

past in his design ... exchange and Barter was a public art 

project carried out in mosaic and terrazzo on a new building 

in the centre of Kampala to enliven urban scenes and give a 

visual interest to a blank wall. 

The theme of this 84-foot decoration is a pictorial history 

of money, showing money and barter tokens, currencies 

in current use and those that have been used throughout 

history in many parts of the world ... Todd’s exploration of 

these motifs is simple and direct. 

126 127

He breaks them down to their basic shapes and exploits 

their decorative value by arranging them in contrasting 

colours in compartments of squares and rectangles, a 

technique that creates a vivid visual impact. The perfection 

of line, the balanced colour arrangement as well as the 

proportion of motifs in relation to the overall ...” 

Here we see that, by helping learners to familiarise with 

available well known collage artworks, discuss the material, 

technique used to execute the art work and talking about 

the artist who made the collage. All this will add to the 

possibility of increasing the learners' creativity and search 

for new ideas. 

Materials and tools 

The types of materials and tools used to create mosaic 

artworks are numerous. Dierk (1997) says, “Despite the 

apparent complexity of the finished designs, the tools 

and techniques for making a mosaic are simple.” The most 

important thing is the medium in which a designer or artist 

has chosen to execute the final design. 

Here below is a brief list of what might be required: 

Pieces of unwanted broken ceramics or glass, 

Found objects metal, bones, sticks, stones, tiles, bottle tops, 

grains, papyrus, cardboard papers. 

Everything 

else 

Cement or grout, cutters, wood blocks, wax, 

buttons, bricks, cassava paste, soil/clay, glue, 

coconut shells, tweezers, a twig brush, cloth, 

table tops, used photo frames, nails and keys. 

Kennedy & Pompilio (2005, 10) remind us to “be aware of 

weathering and ageing on the tesserae you choose and 

know what adhesive will be necessary to secure it ...” For the 

reason that mosaic artworks stay permanently in one place 

for very long time. As a consequence of this, the artist is 

required to always find durable materials. 

Let us try to make a brief analysis of basic characteristics of 

mosaic art: 

a) Mono-media is another characteristic of mosaics. 

Whereby, the executed artwork is usually made by 

using a single (hard) material like glass, small bricks, 

stones, tiles—alone. 

b) Tesserae are principle materials used for the time of 

constructing a mosaic artwork. Such materials exist 

in types of small bricks, stones, wood, shells, tiles and 

glass. Tesserae are generally meant to be of various 

sizes, colour and shapes. 

c) Interstices are small spaces caused by tesserae during 

the process of constructing a mosaic artwork. King 

(2006, 107, 250) asserts, “the tesserae are positive and 

the spaces (or interstices) in between are the negative 

... The space or joint between tesserae” in which grout 

or any other joining material is filled up to build a 

mosaic artwork. 

d) Colour pronounces the purpose of a design on 

mosaics, for it plays a significant part of revealing artful 

arrangements of well-composed tesserae to become 

visually recognised as images or patterns. “Sometimes 

the prettiest colour combinations are found while 

rummaging through glass and china scraps.” As well 

as “... leftovers from previous projects.” (Kennedy & 

Pompilio 2005, 79) 

Setting up a mosaic artwork can be done in different ways. 

That is to say, artworks of mosaics are almost always done 

by using a direct or an indirect method. 

Here is how it can be done; 

Characteristics of mosaics 

As Digolo & Mazrui (1988, 33) assert, “Another characteristic 

is that a mosaic uses one material at a time and places 

The direct method of making a mosaic artwork is done 

by setting a surface of the support and then a single 

material of tesserae like stone, tile, or glass is carefully 

arranged directly on the surface top—grout is added 

at or soon after this stage. Kennedy & Pompilio (2005, 

16) say, “In the direct method tesserae is placed directly 

emphasis on colour.” Thereby, mosaic artworks are for the 

on the mosaic surface. They can be placed in drying 

most part created by using a single material like stone or 

concrete, or glue on a prepared surface ... the method 

broken tiles in different colours and sizes. And, apart from 

allows you to easily make adjustments to the mosaic as 

that, some types of materials are put to use after painting 

you work.” However, the outcomes of a direct method 

them. 

are not always flat or even thus making it suitable for 

128 

wall mosaics (vertical) than floor (horizontal) mosaics. 

129

A small section 

of a floor 

surface, showing 

randomly 

arranged 

recycled tiles. The 

same approach 

can be used 

to construct a 

mosaic artwork. 

And in an indirect method of producing mosaic 

artworks there is a great possibility of attaining smooth 

and even surfaces, as well as having the capacity 

to execute very huge collage projects. The Indirect 

method involves working or making mosaic in an 

inverted (upside down) way on a clean flat surface of 

the support. Kennedy & Pompilio (2005, 17) note, “In 

the indirect method of creating a mosaic, an adhesive 

sheet is placed over a pattern, then tesserae are 

carefully assembled on the surface and then concrete 

or grout is poured over the tesserae.” When the artwork 

is turned to the actual (front) side, it will appear smooth 

and flat. 

In a subsequent way, the Uganda Advanced Certificate of 

Education, Regulations and Syllabuses, 2009 – 2012 (Uganda 

National Examinations Board, 2008, (e), 226) offers this 

excellent mosaic expectation: “Learners who carry on tasks 

with inherent features of mosaics and collage ... are expected 

to have their finished artworks suitably mounted or framed. 

And the artwork must show potential evidence of ability 

to relate design to the medium.” For instance, if the mosaic 

artwork was created with tiles on a wall surface framing may 

be created by arranging lager sizes of tiles in a contrasting 

colour or tone. 

In Pat Torlen (2001, 4) et al.'s introduction, “traditional mosaic 

and ceramic tiles are still used to make beautiful art pieces 

but with the addition of different materials such as broken 

china, glass nuggets, art glass and jewels, mirror, stones, 

fossils, shells and other found objects.” As creative artists, 

we may as well experiment with other found objects 

like buttons, beads, as well as small ornamental items of 

jewellery to produce mosaic artworks. 

How to produce a simple mosaic 

Making mosaic artworks can be such a complicated task 

since most of the necessary materials are bulky. 

However, there are some basic approaches, which can be 

used to creatively execute a mosaic artwork. Let us say, if the 

creative artist uses grout or any other adhesive substance 

to arrange stones, or seeds of different colour and sizes— 

beside each other on a prescribed surface of the support. 

The obtained results shall be a simple mosaic artwork. 

Here is a simple technique: 

Find a source of inspiration and make a sketch of a desired 

mosaic artwork. Or, use an already done sketch. Remove the 

bulk of unwanted details to make it fit well with the desired 

task—to stay less complicated. 

Then, identify necessary tesserae; you can use small pieces 

of stones with varied colours and sizes. 

In general, a mosaic artwork has got to be done on a hard 

surface like a fired pottery/vase, a platter, a table top, picture 

frame trays, candle holders, relief sculptures and on wall or 

ceiling surfaces. 

Nevertheless, everything about a satisfactory mosaic 

design comes from the creative mind of the artist, followed 

by having the necessary skills of interpreting some of the 

pointed out demands of a provided task. 

If the tesserae used are tiles, but not stones. Break them into 

small pieces and put them in categories of itemised colours, 

sizes or textures accordingly. 

Steadily, lay well each tesserae piece on the surface of 

the support—following directions provided by a 

sketch. Leave small gaps or crevices in between 

each tessera for adding grout or a provided 

adhesive. Dierk, 1997, 25 says, “Grout fills the 

crevices between tesserae, adding considerable 

strength and durability to the construction. Grout 

joints also bring a linear quality to the design ...” 

When a grouting stage is completely done, use a 

dampened sponge to clean off excess grout. And 

when the artwork is ready or successfully done, 

take it and keep it in a safe place to dry. 

A mosaic artwork 

Materials: A plate 

made out of paper, 

glue, peanuts 

arranged with 

cereal grains on 

a plastic surface 

of the support. 

130 131

Exercise 

1. Citing years of neglect, failure to meet standards and 

misuse of public funds by local leaders. The people in 

your area have decided to raise their voices by asking 

you to make a pictorial design of a mosaic artwork 

that will be displayed inside the town hall, to enable 

them convey an awareness message educating the 

community about one of these important issues: 

• A good nutrition is a health body 

• Coffee, tea and sugarcane are our cash crops 

• Pollution of the environment 

• The burdens of corruption 

• Coping with disability. 

CHAPTER EIGHT 

Ornaments 

Ornaments are elegant decorations used for embellishing 

our bodies. They can also be used on surfaces of useful 

objects to make them appear more attractive—with their 

extra ostentatious details. 

Chandra (1979, 7) offers a rational explanation: “The study 

of ... ornamentation and of jewellery ... does not only 

disclose man's curious fascination for the unusual, the 

rare, the shining, the colourful metal, stones and other 

materials.” For all that, learning about ornaments also helps 

us “to understand the beliefs, the customs, the economic 

condition, the set-up of the society and its contacts with 

foreign.” From this we can understand the apparent reasons 

as to why we draw irresistible attention and interest to 

ornaments. They reveal objective reality to elegant fashions 

and they serve us in different ways for various purposes. For 

the most part, ornaments display a good sense of style— 

according to traditions and widely accepted customs of our 

societies. 

African tribal groups of people use ornaments in very 

many ways. Craats (2004, 10) notes, “Maasai women ... 

wear brass ornaments that coil around their shaved heads. 

Head-dresses can be very elaborate. Only married women 

can wear long blue beaded necklaces and beaded flaps 

on their earlobes.” Surprisingly, some creative artists 

find perfect sources of inspiration for elegant fashions 

from ethnic groups of people like the Masai who make 

ornaments to be worn by different classes of people. 

In Tod's (2004, 288) A Companion to Roman Britain; “ ... 

jewellery was frequently considered to be a female form 

of ornament, while men wore 'functional' items such as 

brooches, amulets and finger-rings that doubled as signet 

rings.” Depending on our systems of knowledge and beliefs, 

both women and men wear jewellery and ornaments for 

various known for functions like displaying social status and 

for beauty. 

However, it is customary for various tribal groups of people 

to wear or produce ornaments—find sources of inspiration 

from local materials and found objects. 

132 133

A pendant of a 

necklace 

Materials: 

Bark-cloth, 

thread and 

plastic beads 

All this and more can easily be acquired from the physical 

environment thus helping to turn useful ideas into artworks. 

Sources of inspiration necessary for making ornaments 

include bones, animal teeth seashells, ivory, horns, leather, 

wood or sticks, stone, coloured soils, metal, sisal, reeds, 

bamboo, plants and carved stone. 

According to Silvester (2009, 3), “... the Surma and Mursi” 

in the Omo valley “... share a taste for body painting and 

extravagant decorations borrowed from nature ... done 

mainly with materials from the plant world,—all kinds of 

trophies, including buffalo horns, warthog tusks, monkey 

skins and more” are used as principal materials of executing 

creative ornamental artworks. They also use “flowers, 

vegetables, herbs, shrubs and weeds.” 

Certainly, ornamentation is still a predominant practice 

for the most wonted people around the world. In Uganda, 

“Langi women were tattooed on the back and front while 

men were tattooed on the back only and both sexes 

normally used oil or ghee as skin lotion ... ” (Otiso 2006, 75) 

All these habits of embellishments and adornment aim for 

beauty, mutual respect and other society affiliations. 

And in several African societies, people do hair art in forms 

of body ornamentation and it is executed in relation to the 

type of emphasis placed on privileges societies and tribes 

avail to a particular person or a group of people in their 

distinct tribal communities. 

Also, in an incidental manner, ornaments are likened to 

jewels that we use as precious metals or objects for adoration. 

According to Chandra (1979, 7), “ornamentation ... include 

other examples of embellishment such as, necklaces, 

rings, bracelets, earrings, wine cups, accessories of worship 

used in churches or shrines, body decorations, clothing 

ornamentation and dressing for local cultural shows or 

entertainment and rituals.” Here we see that, the two words 

ornaments and jewellery give the impression that they are 

interconnected and indistinguishable. For instance, Mac OS 

X software; Dictionary (2009) indicates jewellery as “personal 

ornaments—which contain jewels and precious metal.” 

It also explains ornaments as “adornment decorations 

added to embellish.” In simple terms jewellery deals with 

precious metals while ornaments are adornments that may 

sometimes be without practical purposes. 

To avoid uncertainties, take your creative actions or 

processes with one word/meaning that you think is most 

significant for a desired interpretation. 

Uses of ornaments 

A lot of aesthetic and creative purposes have been 

mentioned in the previous basic explanations about 

ornaments. 

Here is another review about uses of ornaments: 

• The rich especially among the royals use 

ornaments as status symbols. 

• Ornaments are used as articles of faith. For 

example, crucifixion antiquities, medallions or a 

spiritual cross. North (1986, 21) explains, “We know 

that many religions have used Gold as part of their 

ornaments.” Certainly, such embellishments serve 

as enhancements of doctrinal atmospheres for 

some religious worshipers. 

• Ornaments are equally used by military or private 

people as clasps, pins and medals to decorate and 

to commemorate their actions and services. 

• Both ornaments and jewellery have numerous 

significance to wearers (of bling-bling) who perform 

on social occasion; playing music, dancing and for 

some theatrical roles. 

• Also, ornaments and jewellery are used to reveal 

marital status of particular people, especially 

among the married. 

• Ornaments can be bought or owned in exchange 

of money and for wealth displays. North (1986, 

20) says, “before it functioned as money ... it must 

have served other purposes ...” He was referring 

to the other ways in which “jewellery” and 

“ornamentation” were used before the current 

medium of exchange such as coins and banknotes. 

Also architecture uses ornamentation as decorations. For 

instance, on buildings used for public worships (a church 

or a mosque). The walls are sometimes decorated with 

ornamental doctrinal designs, which may at times indicate 

scripts from a Koran and faith-based geometric designs on 

windows and columns. 

An example 

of a spiritual 

medallion 

routinely worn 

as a pendant 

134 135

Equally, in places of worship, we find various kinds of 

ornaments used as accessories of worship such as a 

goblet, chalice or wine cups, the altar table and sacred 

vessels. These are also referred to as antique ornaments for 

aesthetic decorations and adornment. 

The uses of ornaments and jewellery are endless to the 

extent that everyone will always find a sincere reason of 

owning them and make beneficial uses from them. Apart 

from that, jewellery and ornaments can be produced from 

extremely plenty of materials. And certainly, the process of 

making ornaments involves using different tools, materials 

and equipment. 

Materials and tools for making ornaments 

As Njoroge-Kamau (1988, 158) has remarked, “Any beautiful 

bits of scrap paper, sisal or cotton string, soft copper wire, 

beads, soft seeds, bottle tops, bones, horns, strong glue 

or paste, scissors, hammer, nails, knives, razor blades” can 

beneficially be used as tools and materials necessary for 

producing ornaments and jewellery. 

Let us learn more about some well-defined tools and 

materials, which may be necessary for making ornaments 

and jewellery: 

a. Closing pliers is used for finishing by locking a 

jewellery artwork. It has also got a smooth side for 

protecting wires from becoming dented during the 

course of making closing loops. Sometimes jewellers 

use closing clippers to make link rings or loops. 

b. A wire rounder is a tool used to eliminate sharp points 

on jewellery. It makes rough edges of cut wire ends soft 

and smooth, by inserting a wire through its cup end. 

And then, a wire is carefully rotated backwards and 

forwards—for a smooth round finish. 

c. Round nose pliers can be easily confused with 

chain-nose pliers by reason of their concise similarities. 

One at a time; a round nose pliers has got smooth 

round jaws used for bending and they can be used to 

form loops on a wire. 

And, chain nose pliers have got flat jaws used for gentle 

narrowing of wire points. It is also used to keep a firm 

hold at a stage of bending wires. 

d. Flat nose pliers use a smooth side to hold beads. It can 

also open jump rings as well as assisting to make wires 

straight. A creative jeweller can accurately use flat nose 

pliers to bend wires by using its flat top. 

e. Stoppers as it sounds—are accessory tools used for 

stopping beads from slipping out of a necklace thread 

during constructions. Types of stoppers and their 

abundant uses are numerous. Another simple way of 

making a stopper is by tying knots. Surely, all this is 

sometimes determined by the nature of materials used 

to support a necklace for the time of construction. For 

instance, a string does not behave in the same way as a 

wire—for the time of operating as a stopper. 

136 137

f. Needle/long nose pliers uses it's longer and narrow 

flat tip to give a quick reach into tight places. Its long 

arms give a better control during the whole process of 

working. 

g. Beading awls are the only tools with an acquaintance 

of “undo” during jewellery making. But it can also be 

used for making holes in leather. Beading awls are 

designed to manage annoying knots that are fastened 

tightly or closed firmly. By improvisation you can use a 

sharp nail; firmly fix it on a supporting stick-handle, a 

beading awl shall be cheaply made. 

h. Cutters/box cutters exist in various types and sizes. 

Their functions are associated to a razor blade or a pair 

of scissors. They can be used to cut some soft types of 

strings or wires, papers for paper beads et cetera. A 

good cutter must be sharp for a pleasant trim and to 

avoid tattering or making irregular smooth less edge 

on a thread meant for jewellery, or a paper intended for 

bead making. 

Other creative jewellers use kitchen knives to cut for 

the time of constructing jewellery artworks. 

i. Strings can be easily attained from well prepared 

raffia or sisal. Sometimes nylon thread is used in the 

same way for purposes like fastening and it is also 

used for holding jewellery throughout construction. 

Njoroge-Kamau (1988, 153) asserts, “bottle tops and 

seeds need only a hole to be drilled in them and a 

string passed through ... to make a simple necklace.” But 

then, if a string or thread used for making a necklace 

shows tattered bits on its ends. Use a lit match stick and 

carefully burn them (tattered bits) for a pleasant finish. 

j. A beading board has got the same function as a 

beading mat. Such a board can be made locally from 

a wooden board. Beading boards that we buy from 

shops are designed to have grooves, which assist in the 

process of shaping a necklace and they also provide 

necessary measurements or size. Using a beading 

board allows a jeweller to plan a necklace. It contains 

units indicating chain length or bracelet sizes. Other 

uses of a beading board include sorting, aligning and 

organising beads. 

k. Tweezers are many. That is to say, there are very many 

kinds of tweezers. Even so, jewellers use tweezers to 

pick and to hold small items during the process of 

making a jewellery artwork. Items that can be picked 

by tweezers include small pieces and parts of chains, 

beads and strings. A simple tweezers can be made by 

bending a small firm metal plate into a befitting ‘V' 

shape. 

l. Beads exist in different colours, sizes and materials. 

Some types are made from plastics or they are artificial 

and others are natural—extracted as seeds or from 

fruits. Nonetheless, beads can be made from papers, 

plastics, wood, stones, cowries shells and bones. 

138 139 

Box cutter 

A piece of paper 

indicating 

doted lines for 

slicing strips of papers 

necessary for 

creating paper beads 

Di�erent shapes of 

paper beads, mounted 

on a nylon thread 

Job’s tears beads 

ritualistically arranged; 

from a segment of a 

Rosary.

Certainly, before using natural beads or seeds, it is 

important to treat (preserve) them, prevent decay and harm 

on skin. Some types of seeds are safe to use as beads when 

they are dry and they are easy to find from forests. Examples 

of such seeds obtained from plants for making jewellery 

and ornaments include: 

1. Job's tears are commonly used in botanical jewellery 

2. Ormosia coccinea seeds; they are bright red with a 

large black blotch. 

3. Coconut tagua seeds grow like a brown, 

rough-skinned miniature coconut. 

As a creative artist, check for other sources of inspiration 

Ultimately, here is a table showing basic materials, which 

from the already done sketches inside your book. Equally, 

can be twisted into integral shapes necessary for creating 

some drawings can still be used as a starting point for 

jewellery artworks: 

composing suitable jewellery and ornaments. 

Here is another checklist of creative ideas which can be 

Bones Pen caps Sandal/slipper 

converted into delightful jewellery and/or ornaments: 

Cable wires Bamboo Cowries shells 

Snail shells Insects Alphabets 

Tin tops Buttons Hollow sticks 

Visual aids Logos Story telling 

Bottle tops Used car tyres Plastic cork 

Birds or feathers Wood/sticks Bones 

Leather from old 

shoes and bags 

Scrap papers (paper 

beads) 

Plastic water pipes 

Flower, leaf and 

plant shapes 

Religion and 

worship 

Entertainment/ 

Music 

In a creative and sustainable way, clay is another 

comprehensible material, which can be used to mold beads. 

This can be done by using the inner surfaces of your hands 

Patterns from 

animal and reptile 

skins 

Tourism, museums 

and prehistoric sites 

Shapes, textures of 

seeds and fruits 

or between the thumb and an index finger to press clay into 

In the meantime, learners should be given prior knowledge 

shapes of beads. The method is tricky, because it is not easy 

about possible outcomes of making jewellery and 

to quickly obtain similar or matching beads—with precise 

ornaments meant to serve as artworks with an underlying 

sizes. But it's worth a try. 

aim of scaring or frightening. Examples of scaring themes 

Sources of inspiration for designing 

include snakes, tigers or lions et cetera. Even though 

jewellery artworks 

creative artists can find inspirational ideas from them, such 

Artists produce very many functional jewellery designs from 

themes should be avoided. Here is why. 

their surrounding environment. 

'Beautiful' as such themes may seem to be—to you! 

In general, creative designers use sources of inspiration 

Scaring and frightening themes do not entice sincere users 

from nature to execute a wide range of things that we see 

than if jewellery or an ornament was creatively executed 

or use as beautiful jewellery and/or ornaments. In Silvester's 

from a domestic or tamed animal kept for companionship 

(2009, 8-9) Art and the body; “snail shells strung on plant 

as a source of inspiration. Examples include pets; fish, birds, 

fibers make a superb necklace. Shells, nuts, gourds, flowers, 

a dog and all kinds of animals that we treat with care and 

woven grass are used as decorations.” Here we see that the 

affection. 

list of things the learner can use as sources of inspiration for 

Silvester (2009, 6) argues that during his visit at Omo valley 

designing jewellery and ornaments are inexhaustible. 

in Ethiopia, “the Mursi were the most warlike among all the 

tribes there. 

140 141

The aggressive conduct of these warriors and their regalia, 

made from warthog tusks, horns and other animal trophies, 

made a major contribution to their reputation.” 

That is to say, art and the modesty of ornaments as well as 

jewellery should be highly regarded as matters of public 

interest and importance. 

None the less, distinct African tribal people associate 'scare' 

with events of worships and rituals. In particular witch craft 

or sorcery. 

Techniques of decorating jewellery 

African jewellers make jewellery artworks by using very 

many outstanding techniques, dictated by the materials 

available. 

Miller (2005, 14) says, “A good technique is the foundation of 

superior jewellery design and manufacture.” That is to say, 

nearly all creative jewellery artists will enjoy the delight of 

discovering good approaches of working with a justified 

technique of executing planned jewellery. 

Occasionally, it is not reasonable to decorate jewellery 

accessories made from natural seeds, shells and beads. They 

are naturally endowed with indisputable artistic patterns, 

which may naturally appeal to end users and their common 

desires. 

Here is a look at some of the generally accepted “ways in 

which jewellery can be decorated” basing on Gale & Little's 

(2000) writings: 

Fabrication 

Spraying or 

painting 

Plaiting 

Mainly applies to shaping metal. For the 

time of decoration, actions or steps may 

include hammering or stamping to flatten 

links, filling and sawing or piercing. 

The two attributes; spraying or painting 

present an appealing sense on the surface 

of jewellery. They help to prevent harm 

on human skin. And, they also protect 

a jewellery artwork from quick surface 

degeneration caused by rust. 

This technique uses a woven-wire 

approach. Where by, a chosen flexible 

jewellery material—wire or thread can 

be bound intricately together just like 

strand. An entirely plaited wire meant to 

decorate jewellery will bear some general 

resemblance to sisal ropes. 

142 143 

Incising 

Ornamentation 

File or filing 

Coils 

Casting and 

soldering 

Drilling 

This can be done by carving or cutting long 

lasting marks/markings or grooves into a 

jewellery surface by using a sharp knife or 

any other tool. 

Decorates jewellery by adding elaboration 

of other ornate designs. The material used 

for artwork execution is usually determined 

by the process and the final design. 

Decorates jewellery by roughening or 

smoothening a surface. Filing is mainly 

done on metallic jewellery and sometimes 

on wood. 

Are made by using wounds of wires or 

thread, to form decorative curls, spirals and 

twirls. Accordingly, the executed coils can 

be used to decorate other surfaces of a 

jewellery artwork. 

The two methods can be used to 

decorate—operating simultaneously. They 

both deal with high fire temperatures 

that form molten. By using a shape of 

mouldable materials, decorations and joins 

can be made. 

Ideal decorations can be added on 

jewellery by drilling fully composed 

patterns of holes using a nail or any other 

piercing tool. Suitable and appealing ideas 

of designs depend on materials used as 

well as purpose/functions of impending 

jewellery. 

Finishing jewellery 

Creative jewellers finish their artworks of jewellery by using 

a large number of techniques. For the most part, methods 

of finishing are determined by varying factors like the type 

of materials used to execute a final artwork. “It is often the 

finishing touches that make a handmade item so special.” 

(Owen 1991, 7) 

Finally, as a creative jewellery artist, always make your own 

tools—necessary for full time use, particularly finishing the 

executed jewellery artwork. For example, a broken piece 

of glass can be used for smoothing or polishing plastic, 

woodwork or other surfaces.

How to make a simple necklace 

For the most part, a necklace contains connected series of 

beads or metal links. Each link appears like a ring twisted 

back on itself into the next. Such links may also be created 

from a simple to a more complex form by using other found 

objects. 

Function and meaning are among the most important 

things, the creative artist has to be aware of to construct 

a necklace. Miller (2005, 59) asserts, “... It's fun to wear a 

particularly stunning piece of handmade jewellery to a 

social function and proudly proclaim. I made it.” 

Let us see how; 

The process of executing a necklace starts with a sketch. 

The sketch can be obtained from any motivating idea or a 

source of inspiration of your own choice. 

As a creative artist, you will need a string. It can be from a 

nylon thread or a soft wire for making “... your own chain 

links to form a long necklace with bead dangles suspended 

from a pendant ...” (Miller 2005, 88) 

Then, obtain beads and start with; sorting them according 

to size and colours. Keep or put the selected beads aside in 

one single container. “Job’s Tears” beads botanically known 

as Coix lacryma-jobi are prevalent in bushes or gardens. 

Look for then, if possible. They can serve as the nearest 

alternative after paper beads. Also, by ways of experimentation, 

bottle tops can be used for the same if they are shaped 

well. 

Some beads consume a lot of time to make them ready 

for such useful purposes. For instance, paper beads are 

routinely made after cutting a paper into small neat pieces 

similar to ribbons. 

The ribbon shaped paper can then be gently folded in a 

cylindrically way to form different shapes colours and sizes 

of beads. On the paper's final tip, or the top most end of a 

paper bead, (after folding it) add a small smear of glue to 

lock or tie the bead. 

In another way, if you have chosen to make the necklace by 

using job's tears beads—they grow as seeds on a grass type 

of plant and they are shaped like a teardrop. 

Sort the beads and take them to dry. After that, pierce 

then and push a wire or a thread—through each seed 

accordingly. 

At an appropriate stage of mounting your preferred 

beads on a string, the process of working can be done 

in sequential ways. As an example, you can start with 

smaller beads. It is feasible to have larger beads or seeds 

somewhere in the centre of a necklace to be able to make a 

proportionally balanced pattern of a necklace. 

Fill up the string or wire with beads. If all necessary parts 

of a necklace are properly constructed, check whether the 

attained necklace has some distinctive attribute of elements 

and principles of design. Such as balance, composition, line, 

focal point, rhythm and colour combinations. 

Add a lock on the string to finish the necklace and make it 

ready for display. 

Exercise 

1. Construct a design set of jewellery to be used on 

an annual celebration of a very important marriage 

ritual in your culture. In a creative way, use found 

objects as materials for this task. Give the attained 

jewellery a name, but the purpose or function must be 

self-evident. 

2. The schools in your district will hold a National gala for 

games, sports, music, dance and drama competitions. 

As a creative artist, you are required to design a trophy 

for the winning school or team by using skills and 

techniques obtained in procedures for decorating 

jewellery. Keep the design as simple as possible 

144 145

CHAPTER NINE 

Weaving 

Weaving is the art of using groups of threads, or any other 

materials such as sticks, grass, thin metal (wires) to make 

necessary binds for constructing useful objects like textiles; 

woven from threads. Mats and baskets—these can be 

made by using grass. Washbun (2011, 136) informs us that “... 

basketry and mats are often classified as textile arts.” 

Through weaving creative artists produce fabrics and 

other functional objects such as baskets, furniture and 

architecture. Almost all of the above mentioned can be 

made with twines of smooth muscle fibers such as sets 

of yarn, reeds, grasses, prepared bamboo, palm leaves, 

drinking straws and pine needle (leaves). 

According to Lamb (2002) the author of Topics of weaving; 

“Weavers use threads spun from natural fibers like cotton, 

silk, wool and synthetic fibers such as nylon and orlon. In 

spite of that, thin narrow strips from any flexible material 

can be woven. People learned to weave thousands of years 

ago using natural grasses, leafstalks, palm leaves and thin 

strips of wood or sticks and strong tendril plants.” 

From this we can understand the back stories of weaving 

and some feasible ways of producing functional woven 

objects from various natural and manmade materials. 

Somjee (1993, 79) laments, “A number of strings can be 

joined into a rope. Sisal is woven into straps for bags and for 

tying animals. Sisal in Kenya is used to make mats, cushions, 

mattresses and baskets.” In another way, strings of sisal, yarn 

or any other obtainable weaving materials are sometimes 

enhanced with colouring dyes as a way of decorating the 

vast range of woven products. 

In several parts of Africa especially Uganda, weaving has 

also been done for architectural purposes like constructing 

surrounding homestead barriers or fences and it has also 

been used for building shelter walls with materials like 

reeds or canes and wooden sticks (wattle-and-daub), tied 

with well-made strings obtained from tree barks, to support 

loads and packs of wet clay or mud. On the roof of a house/ 

hut, grass is firmly thatched to cover and protect occupants 

from bad weather such as rain. 

Sometimes reeds, grass or straw, palm leaves, sliced 

bamboo, twigs or tree branches are carefully woven to 

cover the roof. 

In the same way, Stairs (2002) reminds us that “in 

Uganda weaving “does not stop at cloth and house hold 

implements. He was referring to shopkeepers and street 

vendors who he found sitting on an “akatebe ak'ekibbo, or 

basket stool.” Evidently, then, it is not only textiles that can 

be created through weaving, also furniture and other useful 

house hold items can be made in similar ways. 

Well as skills and practices of weaving hand craft are 

considered as a common practice for African people, duties 

and responsibilities of weaving are shared accordingly. For 

instance, “some groups of people in Kenya like the Iteso and 

Giriama. It is the men who make baskets, whereas among 

others like the Kikuyu, Kamba and Taita, it is the women 

who make baskets.” (Somjee 1993, 82) 

Lugira (1970, 72) offers a rational explanation: “basketry was 

the foundation of home making ...” Where by, functional 

“defence” items such as “fences and portable shields” were 

creatively made from them. In the tribal cultures of the 

Masai, women do weaving for building and to thatch huts, 

“granaries with reed work, traps and heavy field baskets — 

made by men in similar ways.” 

Certainly, there is a big range of art and craft products 

that can be creatively woven using native indigenous 

knowledge from various tribal people of Africa—for 

practical purposes which may be different from one 

another. 

In the words of Mutungi (personal interview, 2009); “... many 

of the creatively woven functional objects, handiwork and 

artworks made by African people are—on a rationale of 

indigenous knowledge ... thus, we have to hold it in high 

esteem by advancing it to some conforming standardisation.” 

That is to say, not so many design professional and 

art teachers have demonstrated satisfaction or approval in 

teaching indigenous knowledge of weaving. Hence leaving 

a curious leaner to source from informal knowledge of 

semi-skilled and unskilled people. 

146 147

Different types of 

coiled baskets 

offering evidence 

of indigenous 

knowledge 

A: Woven with 

grass straw and 

dyed sisal. 

B: A tightly sewn 

basket—for storing 

food; made with 

natural straw and 

banana fibers. 

C: Woven with 

dyed raffia and 

soft splits of cane. 

Uses of weaving 

As Somjee (1993, 79) has remarked, “The large size kidasi ... 

is used for carrying maize, vegetables and flour. And the 

small sizes are used to keep and to carry little personal 

belongings of women.” In view of all these, let us learn more 

about uses of weaving: 

• Weaving can be used to organise large groups of 

people for social activities in schools. 

• By carrying out weaving, we hold back from some 

habits of frustrations and boredom. 

• Weaving is a source of income. Fabrics, mats, nets, 

trays, baskets and hats can be woven for sale. 

• Most importantly, fabrics woven cover or shield 

our bodies from bad weather. As a result, we attain 

a health living. 

• Weaving is a significance of fashion; it is the origin 

of utility bags and textiles. Generally, such woven 

items are also made to depict popular trends. 

• Woven fences are used for protection and to 

prevent escape, it also provides wall supports for 

home shelters. 

• It is a well-liked hobby. 

Functional handiwork of weaving 

There are very many functional items that are skilfully made 

by interlacing soft fibres as materials—to make a weave. 

“Their shapes are influenced by their functions and the 

materials that are available to the community” Somjee 

(1993, 85) adds. 

Here are some notable examples of woven handiwork: 

Mat or Kiwempe/omukeeka from Ganda language (in 

Uganda) and “mkeka” by Swahili people from Kenya. 

Mats are skilfully woven for different special purposes. Some 

common types of mats are customary made by using dried 

dyed palm leaves. Other materials include: 

Papyrus Bamboo Sisal Small sticks 

Wood Reeds or rushes Animal skin Tree bark 

Banana Slits of cotton Drinking Straw and 

fibers fabrics straws grass 

In spite of that, mats have a wide range of utility purposes. 

For example; 

• Protecting a table or floor surface 

• Wiping dirty feet in front of a doorway 

• It can also be used to display ostentation used for 

decorating home interiors. 

• Mats are good for resting, lying and sitting. 

A considerable number of mats are craftily woven by tying, 

threading and plaiting in accordance with traditional 

common weaving methods. Most mats, such as those 

locally made with palm leaves are woven in various series 

of steps. Maiti (2004, 125) adds, “... plaits are made separately 

and then sewn into the required shape in such a way that 

the joint does not show.” This type of weaving is different 

from weaving done on wooden frames to make carpets and 

tapestry as well as textiles. 

Baskets are many, they exist for different purposes, sizes 

and they are woven with different materials. Some are 

made for storing and carrying food, gifts as well as taking 

them for shopping. As an example there is a type of basket 

commonly known as kiondo. Somjee (1993, 86) asserts, 

“Traditionally, the kiondo was made from roots and barks of 

tress. Later, it was made from sisal and plastic strings.” 

148 149

Here we see that through trials and by making experiments 

with basic local weaving materials the learner shall seriously 

be motivated to produce baskets from various found 

objects and natural fibers such as: 

Raffia Cane Rush Sticks 

Palm leaves Reeds Papyrus Leather 

Millet fibers Banana fibres Birch bark Thin wires 

Cattail/reed 

mace 

Drinking 

straws 

Water 

hyacinth 

Dried stalks of 

grass 

Midribs of 

banana leaf 

Corn/maize 

husks 

Willow 

shrubs 

Well prepared 

bamboo 

And in a thorough manner, the techniques of weaving 

baskets differ because of the vast array of materials 

available for making them. Here is how Maiti (2004, 124-127) 

categorised some techniques of weaving baskets: 

Check twine 

Plaited work 

Twilled twine 

Wrapped twine Twine (Plain) 

Hexagonal work twine Wickerwork 

Coiled work 

Simple over sewn coil Furcate coil 

Bee-kep coil Figure of eight 

Lazy squaw Crosse figure of eight or knot stitch 

According to Maiti (2004, 127) “plaiting wickerwork and 

coiling techniques ... include different patterns.” The wicker 

work method is well-known for producing strong baskets 

necessary for carrying heavy loads. 

Dry sticks and well preserved tree barks can also be used 

to enhance or decorate woven baskets, to appear with a 

visual sensation of colours. As an alternative, colouring dyes 

can be boiled with palm leaves, grass and bark to richly 

decorated baskets. 

Furniture can as well be woven in very many ways using 

various methods and materials. Here are some types of 

materials necessary for weaving furniture: 

Fabric (cut slits) Sisal 

Canes or sticks Sea-grass 

Water hyacinth Abaca (Musa textilis) 

Banana fibre Sticks or branchlet 

Synthetic rattan Palm rattan 

Metal wire Plastic wire 

Raffia Drinking straw 

Car tyre strands—cut into Wicker twigs 

lengthy strip belt sizes (also makes baskets) 

Plain twined weaving 

Three-strand twine 

Wrapped twined weaving 

Hexagonal work 

Lattice twined weaving (Bird cage) 

Three-strand braid 

Wrapped work 

Twill and diagonal twined weaving 

150 151 

Lazy-squaw 

Cycloid 

Crossed figured of eight 

Different kinds 

of weaving 

techniques. 

These can be 

used to make 

strong furniture 

and baskets

Usually, each obtained material is prepared in a different 

way before it turns into a final product. For instance, after 

acquiring some already used drinking straws, they can be 

prepared or washed by soaking them in a container filled 

with a mix of water and a detergent of soap. This makes 

them clean and free from transmissible diseases. 

However, nearly all woven furniture such as tables and 

chairs necessitate a frame. It can be made out of wood or 

metal. 

Somjee (1993, 67) discerns this point: “In Kenya, many 

different types of materials and techniques are used for 

making furniture ... Today, beds, tables and chairs are made 

of wood by carpenters, metal craftsmen and basket weavers 

who have turned into professional furniture makers ... Thus, 

we have wooden, metal, cane and woven furniture made of 

branches, tough grasses, barks and vines.” Learners must be 

aware that weaving is a fundamental skill for creative artists 

since it produces very many useful things for our everyday 

life. 

Textiles are as well woven by using various materials of 

soft thread fibres—in different techniques. Sometimes, 

the methods of producing a textile by weaving are 

pre-determined by the weaver's creativity, tools, materials 

and equipment. For example, if the weaver takes a process 

that requires readymade thread. Then, the various stages of 

spinning yarn shall be skipped. As is evident, passing two 

thread pieces or yarns to cross each other at right angles 

does textile weaving. Yarns that move across the width of a 

fabric are commonly known as wefts and yarns, which run 

from end to end; are warps. 

There are so many types of natural materials from which 

weavers can acquire yarn for example cotton (plant) and 

wool (animals). Yet again, the two kinds of materials can as 

well be woven together to form a single fabric. 

As Somjee (1993, 41) has explained about a Burji cotton 

spinner who he found in Marsabit District of Kenya: “This 

skilled spinner is examining the strength and fineness of 

the cotton thread. He drops the spindle with one hand and 

rolls the thread with the other. The cotton that he is using 

is home grown. The thread will be woven into fabric which 

will be used to make shawls, short trousers, sheets and the 

baddo; a traditional garment of men in the district.” 

That is to say, cotton is an indigenous raw material, it is 

home grown and it can be processed locally into yarn 

for weaving textiles. 

This also makes it abundant and cheap for use during textile 

productions; by using simple tools and techniques. 

Here is a brief list of other basic materials which can be 

processed to make textiles: 

Papyrus Flax Hemp Kelp 

Moss Jute Rice roots Coconut fiber 

Sisal Cocoanuts Ramie Sea weed 

Tree bark Straw braids Silk Wood pulp 

Lime grass Banana fiber Paper Polythene 

152 153 

Kelp (sea 

weed) 

Cotton rug 

yarn 

Pawpaw 

leaves 

Pineapple 

leaves 

It is unfortunate that nearly all materials necessary for 

weaving fabrics require a longer preparation process. As 

a learner, make experiments with any familiar material 

from the table list provided. Digolo et al. (1988, 80) prefer a 

rational explanation: “It is often thought that materials and 

tools for hand-weaving are expensive and complicated. This 

is not the case ...” 

Weaving tools 

The list of tools, equipment and materials used for 

constructing a weave are many and they vary accordingly. 

It is because of this that there is a big range of end 

products produced by weaving. In general, some basic 

tools necessary for weaving can be easy to obtain or easy 

to produce locally. For example, to make a woven basket 

you may only need bare hands, piles of grass, a knife and a 

needle. The needle can be shaped from a bicycle spoke (the 

one which supports a rim and the tyre). 

Here is a quick review of some basic materials and tools, 

which can be used for constructing a weave: 

a. Needles exist in various sizes; they are also made in 

different shapes and materials. For instance, a needle 

used for crochet making cannot be used for knitting 

purposes. Needle are used in very many ways like; to 

decorate by sewing, knitting, lace making, stitching, 

darning as well as thatching and crocheting. 

Knot 

Warp 

Weft 

Warp fringes

. Yarn is for fabrics as straw and palm leaves can be for 

basketry and mats. Yarn or thread makes textiles and it 

can also do surface decoration in the following ways: 

sewing or needlework, needle craft, tatting, crewel work, 

tapestry, embroidery. 

c. Dowels are used for holding yarn as well as fastening 

thread on various weaving equipment. Some dowels 

are made from wood, plastic and metal. They work like 

hangers or nails to support the process of constructing 

a weave. 

d. A beater is used for pushing weft yarn into a fitting 

position of the weave during construction. Some 

types of looms use beaters to carry or transport weft 

thread—just like a shuttle. In circumstances of scarcity, 

a personal comb can be substituted for a beater, but 

this may only work well on smaller weaves. 

e. A drop spindle looks like a—typical toy, but it is a very 

important tool used by a weaver to spine yarn. A drop 

spindle can be made locally in this way; push a used 

(old) CD straight through well-made round stick of 1 

feet/approximately 30cm size. At the underside of a 

stick, put a hook nail. A hook is used to prevent yarn 

from unwinding. 

f. A shuttle is for the most part used on some specific 

types of looms to hold warp yarn as it crosses (to fill) 

through weft yarn at right angles. Shuttles exist in 

different designs for specific looms. They are fitted to 

run through narrow spaces of delicate warp sheets of 

yarn. Some shuttles are hand-held and others are not. 

In some situations, shuttles are used like a beater. 

Nearly all weaving tools and materials listed above have 

been carefully matched with local materials to form a 

co-ordinated set that can assist learners to acquire a 

positive standpoint about local materials. Digolo & Mazrui 

(1988, 63) argue, “shop-bought materials and tools ... can 

be expensive. It is advisable, therefore, to explore local 

materials and improvised tools.” Essentially, creative artists 

who carry on weaving tasks should focus attention on local 

materials and found objects. They are less expensive for 

nearly all actions and processes of basic weaving. 

Weaving equipment 

In this section will briefly discuss a few types of looms. They 

are necessary equipment used for weaving fabrics. 

The purpose of a loom is to hold warp yarn in position. Yarn 

has got to be straight and flat for a convenient process of 

weaving. And there are so many kinds of looms; they vary in 

size and design but their uses are nearly the same. 

Here is a brief analysis of basic weaving equipment: 

a. Foot-treadle/floor loom is fundamentally used with a 

foot or feet as well as hands. Tod (1977, xi) notes, “... with 

a floor loom the weaving action requires both hands 

and feet. The feet takes over half the work and the 

hands are free to manage the shuttle ... Floor looms are 

also larger and stronger and they provide more stability 

and permit the use of stronger” beats of threads, “it 

makes it firm and the textile becomes durable. Hence, 

foot pedals on a foot-treadle/floor loom are used for 

raising and lowering warp threads during weaving. 

b. A rigid heddle loom makes small or light weave works 

such as scarfs and dish towels. Rigid heddle looms exist 

in very many types. They can be used for a wide range 

of small projects. A creative weaver who uses a rigid 

heddle loom will have countless chances of quickly 

advancing to bigger tasks or projects meant to be done 

on other sophisticated looms. A rigid heddle loom is 

quick and easy to set up. Learners in schools must be 

encouraged to use them. 

c. A back strap loom is portable and very simple to 

make. The procedure of using a back strap loom 

requires a weaver to fasten one of its two sides around 

the waist. The other end gets tied to a pole, door post 

or a tree. During weaving, the pressure applied can be 

modified by only bending backwards little by little. 

d. A serrated cardboard loom is simple to make by 

using a hard paper. The top and bottom sides have got 

to be notched. The long narrow cuts slits hold warp 

yarn running around up and down. This type of loom 

produces small trial weaves by reason of the paper's 

rigidity. Card board looms are capable of weaving 

specimen and intricate examples of a weave. 

154 155

A crank for turning 

the warp beam 

e. A frame loom is easy to construct. It can be made by 

using four wooden sticks attached on each other at 

right angles. There are two types of frame looms; some 

type have nails on all the four side and other have 

them on only two opposite panels—in equal spaces 

and straight lines. The nails are used to hold warp yarn, 

which may be wounded to run up and down. Frame 

looms are mainly used to weave smaller fabrics and in 

most cases carpets. See ghiordes knots. 

Bobbin 

Coarse wool and 

cotton yarn can 

be thrown or spun 

by winding the 

yarn on spools or 

bobbins—using a 

Spinning wheel 

Rigid heddle loom 

Caste 

Drive band 

Flyer 

Pivot support 

Lower leg 

Treadle 

Tie-up 

cords 

Fly wheel 

Break pedal 

Back strap loom 

Lammms 

Treadles 

Beater top 

Reed 

Cloth or fabric 

beam 

A “typical �oor loom” adopted from Cartwright’s (2007, 9) Weave, hand made style. 

f. A ground loom is easy to make by using sticks 

or dowels hammered into the ground to support 

stretched out warp threads. The weaver uses weft 

threads at right angles, horizontally by hands. Using 

a ground loom necessitates a weaver to sit and bend 

forward since the loom is usually fastened and/or 

set-up down on the ground. 

Ground looms can be used to weave a pile, straps and 

bands, as well as flat-woven carpets or rugs. 

Certainly, types of looms are many and they are different 

in all ways. It is the same with spinning. This process is 

performed with various tools and machinery. That is to say, 

some looms run by applying extra mechanical power such 

as electricity and they have several extra parts, each with a 

definite function intended to perform a specified task. 

Digolo et al. (1990, 61) observe that “... machine made fabrics 

are woven or knitted and patterned using different types of 

weaves ...” As a result, read further about looms and other 

machinery necessary for weaving from the provided list of 

references. 

Methods of weaving 

In the words of Jenkins (1980, 184), “... interweaving of 

threads offers the satisfaction of producing patterns in 

texture and colour.” Thereby, the learner of weaving is 

supposed to understand that weaving offers very may 

creative opportunities. 

Here is a review of some ideal methods weaving: 

A plain weave is sometimes referred to as a tabby weave 

or a taffeta weave. Tod (1977, 110) notes, “A plain weave 

depends on the way warp is set in the reed. Three kinds 

of surfaces can be made in plain weaving; balanced warp 

and weft-face cloth.” That is to say, different patterns 

and textures of a plain weave can easily be attained, if a 

weaver uses contrasting colours of warp yarn in alternating 

sequences. 

The other method of weaving is known as twill weave. It 

uses one weft yarn passing under one and over two or more 

bundles of thread. This method of weaving can be used to 

construct tapestry, baskets, fabrics and trays. 

156 157

Tod (1977, 172) laments, “Cloth made in the twill weave is not 

only attractive but very durable and this fact makes it an 

indispensable textile for both our clothes” and other woven 

utility items produced to serve as functional rather than 

attractive contrives. 

On a warp-faced weave Tod (1977, 110) asserts, “... the 

warp threads are usually set so closely together that the 

weft is entirely covered and does not show at all except 

at the selvages where it reverses to make each next row.” 

Accordingly, a warp-faced weave shows patterns created as 

a result of lifting at (least every third) warp yarn and let fall 

patterning yarn threads. In this method of weaving, warp 

threads cover up the weft. 

And then, the weft-faced weave manifests itself as the 

opposite or reverse of the warp-faced weave for the reason 

that only the weft is noticeable and it totally covers the 

warp. Tod (1977, 110) observes, “... only the weft shows 

and the warp is set so far apart that the weft packs down 

between the warp threads. The warp can be plain and 

interesting since it does not show ... A design should be 

planned in a series of interesting horizontal weft stripes.” 

The balanced weave is easy to understand and use after 

analysing the approach of making a paper weave. It uses 

equal numbers of warp and weft threads. Tod (1977, 116) 

remarks, “the weave may have a warp of one colour, ... in 

which case the weft may be plain because the warp stripes 

will lend colour and life to the rug ... ” This makes a balanced 

weave resemble a plain weave. 

We can conclude with Jenkins (1980, 185) creative advise; “... 

a beginner will better understand the principle of weaving 

if he or she starts with just two contrasting colours and does 

a tabby weave, which is simple with alternating yarn overand-under.” 

The non-woven interlacing techniques of weaving 

As Jirousek (1995) reminds us, “non-woven interlacing 

techniques include; knitting, crochet, netting and laces.” 

Let us make a review of Eldershaw's (2002), concise analysis 

of the non-woven interlacing techniques: 

It can be produced by pulling thread from a 

woven fabric. Almost all laces are typically made 

from cotton or silk; by looping, twisting, or 

Lace 

knitting thread in varying patterns. A lace can be 

knitted with any weight of yarn and they are used 

for stylish fabric appearances. 

This is a non-woven interlacing technique of 

weaving nets. Other examples include fish nets, 

mosquito nets and fabrics. Netting produces 

open-mesh fabrics. Two strands can be tied into 

Netting uniform knots and spaces. Spacing knots will 

bring about change in dimensions or shapes of a 

finished net. Netting can be done by using very 

many techniques such as knotted and knot-less 

as well as rectangular and hexagonal weaving. 

This method uses two or three long straight 

needles. Knitting can be done in very many 

outstanding methods—like using only one set 

of yarns. On every advancing row, a new thread 

Knitting noose is pulled into and out of a prevailing loop. 

The active stitches are kept on a needle up to 

when another loop occurs to pass through them. 

Knitting is a technique used to weave sweaters, 

crafts, socks and other useful wears. 

158 159 

Knitting 

Twining 

Ghiordes Knots 

Crochet

Twining 

Ghiordes 

knots 

Crochet 

Can construct a weave with two or more strands 

of strong strings of yarn twisted together. 

It can be used to construct trimmings for bags, 

hats and mainly shoe laces. Twining can also be 

used to produce artistic door rugs and baskets. 

Are commonly used by carpet weavers. They are 

made on a pile of warp yarn; usually with the 

help of a wooden frame. Ghiordes knots are in 

general cut in small sizes from coloured yarn or 

any other material to be carefully fixed between 

two adjacent warps. 

“Crochet” comes from a French word hook. This 

technique can be used to produce fabrics and 

other functional handicraft items using yarn or 

thread with a hooked needle. The technique is 

based on the principle of using a developing 

thread and following one another chain stitches. 

How to produce a simple weave 

using a cardboard box 

Weaving with a cardboard box can arouse curiosities of 

inquisitive weavers—interested in carrying out small 

projects. The basic materials are thread or strings of natural 

fiber such as sisal, a pencil, a cardboard paper and a cutter or 

a pair of scissors. 

Start by creating equally spaced markings of 1cm at the top 

and bottom sides of a cardboard box. Step by step, in equal 

dimensions or sizes. 

Cut open each marked area and create gaps in which weft 

yarn shall be fitted during weaving. The attained cuts may 

be triangular or just straight from a single cut. 

Pick yarn and then roll or tie it well on one corner of the first 

narrow opening. Go ahead and fit it up and down in each 

cut-slit on both ends of a cardboard. Fill the cardboard with 

weft yarn. 

After that, use a needle or a similar object to fit in warp yarn. 

Carefully, start to weave by rotating warp yarn through the 

weft, side by side using a needle in a continuous way. 

If the attained weave becomes gradually small during 

weaving it is likely that the edges of a weave have been 

pulled too tightly by warp. If so, try to loosen up yarn for the 

weave to get back into a pleasant shape—fit for a planned 

purpose. 

Different sets of coloured yarn can as well be added on the 

same card board. Fasten or cut off all loose ends of thread to 

finish the weave. 

How to make a paper weave 

The technique of making a paper weave is simple and it is 

one of the most outstanding ways in which learners can 

be easily inspired into some self-evident aspects of making 

other crafts by weaving. “The finished paper weaving can 

form the basis of weave patterns.” (Digolo et al. 1990, 83) 

To start a paper weave, find any two clean papers with 

different colours. They can be those you have already ripped 

up from magazines, paper wrappers, or bond white paper. 

Where possible, paint the paper to cause change for your 

desired colours. 

Make sure that the obtained types of papers are smooth 

and straight. Cut one paper and break it into equal narrow 

paper shreds or slits. These shall be used as weft. 

The second paper should also be cut in equal 

measurements as it was done for the first paper, but do not 

break the cuts. These thoroughly cut slits of coloured paper 

shall be used as warp. 

Start to weave by fitting narrow paper shreds into the weft 

sheet of paper. 

Weave up and down through the warp until when the weft 

paper reaches at the edge of the last cut, on the warp paper. 

This process of weaving actually involves sliding a paper 

through another paper in a reverse inclination. That is to 

say, the next warp paper strip should be carefully pushed 

smoothly through the slits in contrasting turns. At the 

final stage, the weft shall reveal a structural display similar 

to a checker board with regular patterns of squares in 

alternating colours. 

Go ahead; continue to work until, when weft papers 

have filled up the other remaining spaces. Cut away 

any irregular or unwanted parts to make it ready for 

a display. Generally, such woven papers can be used 

as decorating patterns on other crafts or artworks. For 

example collage, wall hangings and greeting cards. 

A paper weave. 

A single weft 

paper (white) 

passes over and 

under alternate 

warp paper 

(decorated) 

160 161

Exercise 

1. By using found materials and objects from the 

surroundings of your school construct one set of woven 

table mats to be used on a serving table for guests. The 

executed functional weave must be made by choosing 

only one basic technique from the provided list: 

Plain weave or Twill weave. 

2. Construct a multi coloured weave using one of these 

techniques: Crotchet or Ghiordes knots. Suggest a theme 

or purpose for the type of weave you have created. 

3. The community leaders in your area have discovered 

that recycling plastics during weaving is another way of 

shifting the burden to the next generation. Find a new 

material from plants and produce a sizable mat, which 

will be used in the area medical centre by visitors and 

caretakers of the sick. 

4. The environmentally concerned clubs of students 

at your school have become fully aware that plastic 

drinking straws from soft-drink bottles are carelessly 

disposed or thrown away and now the school is 

looking for a basket to carry gifts for a visiting local 

leader responsible for Community Culture and the 

Environment. 

Construct a decorated basket for the stated objective. 

5. Our easy addiction to plastic or polythene bags is 

destroying the environment. Design and produce a 

new type of shopping bag to replace polythene bags. 

Use one technique of non-woven interlaces that will 

serve the intended purpose. 

6. Young mothers in your community have lost their 

babies because they do not know how to keep them 

warm. Produce a woven baby shawl to be used as a 

blanket for solving the problem. 

Choose one weaving equipment for that purpose 

• A back strap loom 

• A rigid heddle loom 

CHAPTER TEN 

Fabric decoration 

Fabric decoration is the art of embellishing cloth or fabric 

for pleasant appearances. 

Digolo & Mazrui (1990, 61) define “fabric design/decoration” 

as “the patterning of an essentially plain fabric to render it 

more appealing or to serve a particular purpose.” Hence, 

the learner of fabric decoration should not only be given 

the fundamental skills of depicting creative and artistic 

enhancements—on the surface of a fabric—for various 

intended aims. They can also learn about altering fabrics 

by sewing, it is also an approach typically used to decorate 

fabrics. Other methods include dyeing, bleaching, starching, 

waxing, printing and sewing. 

In Uganda, the antiquities or ancient past of fabrics starts 

from tribal people such as Baganda, Banyoro and Basoga 

who used bark cloth for clothing, interior decorations, 

protection from bad weather by covering their naked 

bodies and very many other purposes. 

According to Nakazibwe (2005, 4), “less attention has been 

paid to ... bark-cloth, a fabric ... that predates the technology 

of weaving.” Here we see that, well as there are still several 

tribes actively making bark cloth as part of their traditional 

costume not many have gone ahead to decorate it. 

In Uganda, “It has been speculated that the direct trade 

relations between the Swahili-Arabs and the Baganda 

resulted in the cross-cultural transfer of ideas and skills 

in fabric decoration, which later translated into the 

patterning of bark-cloth, initially exclusively, for royal usage.” 

(Nakazibwe 2005, 396) 

This presents the value of promoting cross-cultural 

understanding by the people who used bark cloth. It also 

led to the discovery of more ways of decorating fabrics, 

which we wear today for distinctive purposes. 

Literally, some sources suggest that decorated bark cloth 

existed in other parts of Africa. Art from Africa (2008) an on 

line source is more enlightening: “The Mbuti Pygmies of Ituri 

forest in the Democratic Republic of Congo, similarly made 

bark cloth by beating tree barks, which they later decorated 

with organic pigments.” 

162 163

A woman 

wearing 

a kanga/ 

lesu fabric 

displaying 

a portrait 

of President 

Barack Obama 

of United 

States. 

On the other hand, people from different parts of the world 

especially Africa wear decorated fabrics for very many 

outstanding reasons. Otiso (2006, 80) asserts, “dress is one of 

the most important means of expressing individual, ethnic, 

religious, class, gender, age and professional identity.” We 

can conclude from this that, acquiring skills of decorating 

fabrics is not the only way of making it extremely useful. 

Uses of decorated fabrics 

Getting creative is always helpful for artists who wish to 

unearth the most essential uses of decorated fabrics. We can 

understand that from Otiso's (2006, 76) explanation about 

the different ways dress is used in Uganda; “It is commonly 

worn on special occasions such as weddings, marriage 

betrothals, funerals ceremonies, national formal events, 

church functions and audiences with dignitaries.” Yet again, 

in some parts of the world decorated fabrics are gender 

specific. 

Here is a review of some basic uses of fabric decoration: 

• Fabric decoration brings about beauty and 

appreciation to a wearer. 

• Fabric decoration distinguishes us by roles in 

society. For example, a school uniform is different 

from one worn by a sports person. 

• Fabrics are decorated for sell—in exchange for 

money, to earn a living. Most fabrics are exported 

or imported. 

• Some people do fabric decoration as a hobby. By 

printing, tailoring, or creating striking fashions and 

design. 

• Politicians or popular group supporters use 

decorated fabrics such as T-shirts to show their 

affiliations. Moreover, when President Barack 

Obama of United States was getting inaugurated 

in January 2009 people in Africa wore bandanas 

and other traditional kangas (a cloth routinely 

wrapped around; mostly worn by women—from a 

waist and up in the chest/bust to cover the body). 

The decorative wears displayed Obama's portrait 

with congratulatory messages. 

• In Ghana, the Ashanti people use a decorated 

fabric known as kente cloth for ceremonies and 

rituals. The kente fabric is beautifully decorated 

with various complex designs or patterns carrying 

meanings that embrace historic events of famous 

person as well as proverbs. 

Digolo & Mazrui's (1988, 80) affirm, “The kente 

cloth was designed and woven exclusively for the 

Ashanti kings and their households.” 

Types of clothing materials 

There is a big list of fabric and textile materials—from 

which fabric decorators sort to work out any planned 

design. According to Lang et al. (1989, 10), “the biggest 

consideration when selecting fabric for decorating projects 

is that you love it. Not like it, but love it. Never, never pick a 

fabric just because it's there. Ignore advice from friends or 

family.” Surely, clothing materials exist in different forms for 

various purposes. 

Fiber and fabric 

The types of fibers which provide a favourable surface for 

decorating textiles are diverse in numbers. 

Fabrics.net (2010) explains, “some materials of fabrics are 

hard, soft, manufactured or natural” with each type reacting 

in a specified way for the time of adding decoration. 

Here is how fabrics.net (2010) states its justifications: 

164 165 

Natural 

fibers 

Synthetic 

fibers 

Are acquired from both animals and plants they 

include; cotton, animal hair/fur, wool and silk. 

Other natural fibers are executed from coconut 

seeds, sisal, bast fibre stems, fruit or seed husks, 

leaves, tree bark, roots and wood pulp. 

Include nylon, acrylic or polyester. Sometimes 

synthetic fibers are mixed with natural fibers to 

make fabrics. For example, on its own, cotton can 

be prone to wrinkling. So it's often blended with 

polyester to maintain a neat appearance. 

Characteristic of fabrics 

Natural fiber fabrics such as cotton and linen are largely 

desired during fabric decoration. These fabrics have 

distinctive qualities of withstanding wear, pressure, or 

damage caused by hard-wearing. Also, they are easy to sew 

and to put in shape than synthetics.

To simplify the discussion, let us review the essential 

characteristics of fabrics made adequate by fabrics.net 

(2010): 

Natural 

fabrics 

Silk 

Cotton 

Ramie 

Wool 

Linen 

Hemp 

Characteristics 

Is a material acquired from fiber produced by a 

silkworm. Fabrics created are generally worn by 

women. Most silk fabrics can be hand washed and 

they dry very quickly. It is not good to iron silk with 

a high setting. For, it will change colour or fade. 

It is a type of fabric made from cotton plant seed 

pods as a botanical raw material. Cotton fabrics 

dry easily and they can endure high temperatures. 

Sometimes cotton fabrics are combined with other 

fibers like polyester, linen and wool. 

Is a vegetable fiber known for its length and 

toughness. It has very many beneficial uses such 

as: It is resistant to bacteria and it is natural white in 

colour. Ramie can easily soak up, it is stronger than 

cotton and flax and it dries quickly. However, it is 

often mistaken for linen. 

Is a type of clothing material made from fine soft 

curly/wavy hair of a sheep, or similar animals. 

Wool makes yarn used for producing textile fiber. 

Woollen fabrics have a soft feel and a very little 

shine. Wool fabrics do not hold creases or wrinkles. 

However, woollen fabric is usually heavier. 

Is a textile fiber acquired from a stalk of a flax 

plant. Linen can be used to perform very many 

unspecified fabric actions other than the many 

vegetable fiber fabrics. It is elegant, beautiful and 

durable. Linen can also be boiled without its fibers 

getting damaged. 

This is a cannabis plant, commonly grown for its 

stem fibers. Its fibers can be used to make ropes, 

stout fabrics, fiber board and paper. Hemp fabrics 

look like linen. They remain undamaged by water 

better than any other textile products. When 

creased, It can easily form wrinkles and its fibers 

will break. 

Apart from that, manufactured fabrics are as well referred 

to as man-made. Such fabrics are created from various fiber 

materials like metal, plastic and other chemicals. Some 

examples of manufactured fabrics include nylon, polyester, 

rayon, spandex, acrylic, acetate and lastex. 

Here is a refined analysis of characteristics of manufactured 

fabrics proposed by fabrics.net (2010): 

Man-made 

fabrics 

Characteristics 

166 167 

Nylon 

Polyester 

Acetate 

Rayon 

Is made from synthetic fibers that are not 

biodegradable. It is commonly used to make 

fine knitted fabrics and items like hosiery 

(socks), nets for bridal veils and for carpeting. 

Is a type of material obtained from polyester 

fibers. The types of fabrics it produces are 

easy to wash and it is also good for making 

bed-sheets, sofa fabrics, curtains, apparel and 

home textiles. 

It has got a minor difficulty to wrinkling. 

Thus it has a good drape. It is flexible and 

soft. However, acetate fibers are not strong. 

But they are good for making dress linings, 

underwear, shirts and sometimes on furnishings. 

Is made from regenerated cellulose (viscose). 

This fabric is frequently used in cheaply 

constructed garments that do not stay long 

for heavy wear. It has got an extremely good 

draping. Rayon can be used on gowns and 

other flowing garments. 

As you continue to learn about fabrics. You will also discover 

many types innovated by man from natural and artificial 

products. For example the morphotex fabric, it was “named 

after the South American morpho butterfly, an insect 

characterised by its deep, jewel-like hues of blue.” (Quinn. 

2010, 112) 

It is a (man)-made type of fabric with smooth texture and 

fascinating colours, which glare illusions of blue, purple, 

green and red when light falls on it. But it does not contain 

dyes or pigments. Remarkably, morphotex fabrics can be 

easily recycled. 

Materials and tools used for fabric decoration 

The lists of materials, equipment and tools used for 

decorating fabrics are many and nearly all are determined 

by the task at hand. Digolo et al. (1990, 63) assert, “it is 

possible that people used bits of stalk, wood to print 

designs on fabrics ... from simple techniques, mainly as a 

result of need to speed up the printing process.”

Let us have a review of some essential tools, equipment and 

material, which may be necessary for decorating a fabric: 

Printing blocks Dyes and inks Fixatives 

Wax Scissors Brushes 

Needles Iron box Tracing paper 

Textile/fabric Printing paste Cleaning rug 

Paper-stencils Thread Clean containers 

Pegs/pins Printing screens Squeegee 

Pens or pencils Razor blades Paints or pigments 

Ssegantebuka (2003, 24) in more enlightening; he suggests 

printing by using improvised materials like: 

Yams (stems and tubers) Dry leaves 

Cassava (leaves and tubers) And any other textured material 

Banana stalks, leaf stalk and Sweet potatoes (leaves and 

a banana flower 

tubers) 

“So the learners are advised to use locally found materials 

for their practice ...” In a similar way the learner should also 

be encouraged to discover local dyes from plants—and 

locally; from found natural materials such as soil or earth 

to decorate fabrics. According to MacDougall (1999) “job 

number one for any ink is to stick to the substrate and the 

rest follows.” We can conclude from this that necessary inks 

used for the time of decorating fabrics must be able to stain 

or infiltrate into the fibers to aesthetically unveil satisfactory 

surface decorations. 

Here is a table illustrating a brief review of inks, which can 

be used to decorate fabrics from MacDougall's (1999) Screen 

Printing: 

Inks Surfaces 

Special 

formulation 

Inks 

Printing paste 

Are used on fabrics by ways of screen 

printing. Such inks can also be used on 

plastics, adhesives, metals and glass. They 

are generally provided by authorised ink 

manufacturers. For example Sadolin paint. 

Such inks are water based and they are 

good for painting or printing on opaque or 

dark fabrics. Printing paste is easy to fix by 

ironing. It includes clear, opaque, metallic, 

gold and matt. 

Expanding ink 

(puff) 

Discharge inks 

Solvent based 

(Water based) 

inks 

This is a type of printing ink, which is 

generally mixed with additives of plastisol 

inks. When expanding ink is printed on a 

fabric; and then Ironed (up-side down), 

the inked areas (emboss) form a bulge or a 

rounded swelling. 

Such inks operate by removing colour from 

distinct surfaces of a fabric. It is actually 

bleach. Discharge inks are especially good 

for printing on natural fibers like cotton 

T-shirts, casino gaming tables and for 

making vintage prints. 

These are water based inks used for 

decorating fabrics by ways of screen 

printing. Such inks can comfortably 

penetrate any desired substrate. They are 

resistant to washing and dry cleaning. And 

they are ideal for cotton and synthetic 

fabrics as well as paper surfaces 

Decorating fabrics can also be done with natural dyes. In 

an article from National Gardening Association (2003), “... the 

dyes necessary for printing decorations can be extracted 

from a rhizome plant. The plant produces a turmeric powder, 

which can be prepared to creatively decorate fabrics. Other 

plants include the coreopsis yellow flower, from which 

orange colouring dye can be equally obtained.” 

Apart from that, “green dye can be made from carrot and 

spinach leaves as well as, from a golden marguerite flower.” 

The learner should try new things and discover more about 

types of inks and dyes necessary for decorating various 

surfaces of fabrics like natural pigments from plants and/or 

animals. 

Methods of printing on fabric surfaces 

The methods used to attain decorations on a fabric are 

numerous. 

In the opinion of Green (1964, 14), “the first series of direct 

prints can be made from natural leaves, feathers, wood 

and any other materials using a simple principle of relief 

printing.” This is one example of teaching simple methods of 

printing to decorate various surfaces. And indeed, some of 

the mentioned—necessary materials are easy to obtain. 

168 169

Here is an itemised set of methods used to decorate fabrics: 

a. Stencil printing is a technique done by cutting out 

a design from a thin sheet of paper, film, cardboard, 

plastic and sometimes metal. Kipphan (2001, 412) 

reminds us that “the correct screen tension is an 

important factor in achieving good print quality ... 

cutting films on base materials available for hand-cut 

stencil ... and stuck to the screen.” That is to say, the 

design used on a film is obtained from a roughly 

sketched drawing and later, it is transferred by using a 

cut out stencil. Then ink or paint is squeezed through 

cut out spaces during printing. This process has been 

clearly explained in a section about screen-printing. 

b. Screen printing (serigraphy) decorates fabrics after 

a motif or a design has been created. According to 

Kipphan (2001, 55) “screen printing is a process in which 

ink is forced through a screen ... a fine fabric made of 

natural silk, plastic, or metal fibers/threads.” 

With the assistance of a squeegee, ink is forced through 

the unblocked parts of a screen (guided by a stencil) to 

form (positive) designs against (negative) empty spaces 

on the surface of a fabric. 

In general, the motif of a design works like a stencil 

during printing. Sometimes it is shaped with 

supporting points commonly known as ‘bridges or ties’ 

for holding together the various components which 

shape a desired design. 

c. Block printing is a primitive way of decorating fabrics. 

It is well liked by decorators who print with various 

obtainable blocks like wood, rubber and even from 

old slippers or shoes soles. Kafka (1973,1) explains block 

printing as a“method employed when carved blocks of 

wood, or other substances are charged with paints or 

dyes and then imprinted onto the fabric.” 

Block printing can also be done with other tools and 

materials such as rubber-stamping as well as printing 

with a press machine. To cut a necessary wood block 

for fabric decoration, the artist is supposed to have 

small tools like knives, chisels, a mallet, a small piece of 

well-made wood, printing ink and a gouge. 

Photo emulsion 

This is another method of screen printing. It works with 

photosensitive substances, which are coated on a mesh 

to dry—inside a very dark place, for the reason that the 

substances of photo emulsion are light-sensitive. 

Whenever light is needed inside a darkroom, use only 

illuminated red (safe light). Close all the doors and any other 

small holes, which may bring or show light inside the room. 

Turn on the red light before applying photo emulsion and 

most importantly, read instructions on a tin. Also, remember 

to wear gloves during working. 

After dispensing emulsion on a mesh, spread it evenly 

on the surface of a mesh and then, allow it to dry. Then, 

attach a well prepared design—printed on a film—on the 

underside (coated with emulsion) of a mesh. 

When exposure light is turned on, it will penetrate through 

the design to reach the emulsion area, to burn away 

(positive) exposure parts. The impact of this can only be 

seen at a stage of washing—a mesh. 

It is in actual fact necessary to consult from experts before 

going ahead with any process of photo emulsion. 

Type of printing meshes 

A mesh is another name for a screen. The main purpose of a 

mesh is to support an ink blocking stencil during printing. 

Board (2002, 3) is more enlightening; the word “screen 

mesh“ is used as an explanation for a fabric that we stretch 

on a frame. “Silk was the original material used, hence the 

name” silk screening, “although the word is rarely used 

today ... Multi-filament and mono filament polyester are the 

products used, mono filament being the most popular.” 

Let us have a brief look at a few types of meshes: 

a. Silk mesh, fabric decorators trust the silk mesh for it 

has got high quality and high precision. Indeed, the 

word silk screen printing came as a result of using 

this mesh. It looks like fine silk gauze stretched over 

a frame. A silk mesh can print on any fabric material, 

ceramic tiles, advertisement, glass, shoes and handbags 

et cetera. 

170 171

. Nylon mesh is strong, lightweight and elastic. If 

properly kept, a nylon mesh can work for a longer 

period of time. Mostly, cheap types of nylon mesh can 

be locally obtained by recycling old home curtains. 

To be sure that the material chosen can serve you 

well check if it has got a smooth texture and—also 

look through with your eyes. If you can see through 

then, it is likely that the cloth material will work as an 

improvised mesh. 

c. Polyester mesh is cheaper and commonly known to 

have some good qualities needed for printing. And 

today it has been made better with a new name mono 

filament polyester screen. It is very strong, elastic and 

resistant to printing chemicals. As an alternative, a 

polyester screen cloth is more durable than a silk mesh. 

Equally, other creative artists carry on with their printing 

processes in different ways by using locally made screen 

meshes from lace mesh fabric and mosquito nets. The only 

complication of these meshes is that they are not easy to 

stretch and they are not very strong. 

Approaches of decorating fabrics 

In the provided table checklist we shall make a brief analysis 

of some few approaches necessary for decorating fabrics. 

Ssegantebuka (2003, 28) suggests, “the learner should be 

encouraged to experiment freely with tools, materials and 

process of every single technique, to get the feel of each 

unique” occurrence. Thus, the techniques of decorating 

fabrics are numerous. If possible learners must be given a 

chance to make trial attempts with each approach provided: 

Waxing 

Decorates fabrics with hot wax and colouring 

dyes. When a hot wax is applied on the surface 

of a fabric, it sets apart—areas not to be dyed. 

Then, colouring dyes are wetted on the fabric 

surface to enhance the design. Removing wax 

can be done with hot water and by ironing 

the fabric. The ironing technique works 

like a 'sandwich' because the batik artwork 

is supposed to be spread between papers 

under and on top. The types of waxes used 

for decorating fabrics include: Wax flakes, wax 

block, candle wax, bee wax and paraffin wax. 

Read more from How to make a simple batik. 

172 173 

Twisting 

Embroidery 

Dyes 

Knotting 

Appliqués 

Tie and dye 

Can creatively decorate fabrics by wringing 

(squeeze and twist) a cloth, tie it to hold up in 

shape. Then, douse a colouring dye all over. 

Open the twists to see the obtained results, at 

a later time. Take it to dry. 

Decorates fabrics with a needle by sewing and 

stitching coloured thread in techniques such as 

needlepoint, needle craft, tapestry, tatting, crewel 

work. Some examples of embroidery stitches 

include; cross, double-cross, fly, couched trellis, 

lazy daisy, button hole and closed herringbone. 

Make decorations on fabrics by holding on 

the fibrous surface of a fabric. Dyes constitute 

a great variety of colouring substances like 

natural dyes, food colour dyes, direct dyes, 

naphthol dyes, vat dyes, sulphur dyes, acid dyes, 

reactive dyes et cetera. “Avoid skin contact with 

the dyes or auxiliary chemicals.” (Dahl 2004, 24) 

Decorates fabrics by fastening knots. The 

tightly fastened fabric can subsequently 

be twisted, or tangled on considering the 

arrangement presented by the sketch. Adding 

colouring dyes can be done by immersing or 

pouring spills of dyes onto its surface. When 

dry, open the fabric to check for the design 

outcomes. 

Uses small pieces of fabrics to enhance or 

decorate another surface of a fabric. The 

selected pieces of colourful fabrics are 

attached on a new fabric by sewing, onto 

another larger piece of cloth to form pictures 

or patterns. 

Appliqués decorations appear as sewn 

ornamental patch-works. Mostly, the selection 

of colours, materials and decorating patches 

are usually determined by the purpose. 

Produces decorative textile patterns by sewing 

and tying using strong (nylon) threads. Tying 

separates colours in some sections of a fabric 

to form the design by guarding colouring dyes 

from penetrating into the protected spaces 

on the surface of a fabric. This method is done 

by using the following brief steps: sketching 

a design on the surface of a fabric, stitch each 

line of the sketch with threads. Then, pull and 

tie them tightly—one by one—soak the fabric 

to put colour in each completed stage. (Do the 

same for the next colour) Open the ‘ties' after 

allowing the fabric to dry.

B 

A 

A: An already made tie-die fabric design 

B: A section of the fabric showing patterns with sewn thread, 

after untying the design; to shield it from colouring 

dyes. 

Pleating 

Marbling 

Marbling 

This is a creative way of decorating fabrics 

by folding (gathering) to make double or 

multiple folds. When a fabric is properly folded 

into pleats with its gather tied using a strong 

string, it will form a zigzag bundle. Then, 

pour or splash colouring dyes on the pleat in 

a disarranged or divergent ways. Open only 

when it has become dry. 

Decorates fabrics or paper by floating 

colouring pigments on water. The marbled 

pattern transfers to the surface of a fabric by 

laying it on top; to pick the buoyant swirls or 

spiralling patterns, then remove quickly. 

The attained marbled blends will appear like 

long, thin, swirling marks of different forms, 

colours and shapes. If more than two pigments 

of colours are used, the generated design will 

show mixes of pulls and twists of colours in 

contrives of shapes. 

A creative way of doing marbling involves 

pouring and mixing small quantities of liquid 

gloss paints into litres of water to make paints 

weaker for any desired pattern in an open and 

wide container. 

In conclusion, before making decorations on a fabric 

regardless of technique it should be clean, well sized and 

properly pressed or ironed. 

Environment as a source of inspiration 

for decorating fabrics 

Everything about decorating and designing fabrics can 

easily be extracted from the beautiful environment around 

us—through research and by drawing regularly. 

Creative artists should be aware that they are also required 

to have familiar knowledge of using elements and 

principles of design, apart from skills of simplifying 

obtained shapes to form planned motifs. 

Sources of inspiration for making fabric decorations 

include the delightful colours, patterns and shapes of 

animals, birds, leaves, flowers, plants, butterflies, insects, 

tree barks et cetera. 

All these and more can be used to acquire the necessary 

designs for decorating fabrics ... “ What limits man is his 

ability to manipulate them” Ssegantebuka (2003, 23) adds. 

Repeat patterns 

We have already discussed repeat pattern in chapter 

five (Graphic design). As a consequence, we have got to 

remember that repeat patterns are used as decorative 

arrangements created by replicating motifs. And there are 

so many types of motifs used in the course of decorating 

fabrics. Some types originate from abstract, organic and 

inorganic sources of inspirations. 

Here is a checklist of some common characteristics of 

motifs: 

Motif Characteristic 

The challenging pursuit about these motifs is 

that they are not easy to manipulate and then 

create movement as well as action because 

Inorganic they are mostly made up of geometric shapes 

which are without vagueness and regular lines. 

For example rectangles, circles, triangles and 

squares. 

These are motifs made from distinct aspects 

of the physical world and they are regarded as 

conventional. “They reveal curvilinear qualities 

Organic that suggest growth and movement.” Fichner 

(2007, 51-58) says. Many artists use organic 

shapes because they work well in accordance 

with the accepted manner of creating designs. 

These motifs appear with decorative designs 

or patterns, which display conceptual 

visualisations of shapes, forms, colours and 

Abstract textures. As an example look at marbling 

Sometimes abstract motifs are developed from 

real (life) drawings, which are further adjusted 

by exaggerating some of their parts. 

A banana peel, 

it was used 

as a source of 

inspiration to create 

motifs for half 

drop, and full drop 

repeat patterns 

174 175

A 

Types of repeat patterns 

During printing, a motif is repeated on a fabric in different 

approaches. For example, it can be done by using a square 

network, full drop, regular and half drop, alternate as well as 

inverses repeat patterns. All these and more can assist the 

creative artist to decorate fabrics in the most favourable 

ways. 

Here is a review of the various ways a repeat pattern can get 

repeated to decorate fabrics: 

a) A square network pattern shows regular shapes of 

designs with equal straight sides and right angles. 

If a mistake concerning its general shape happens 

and not earlier on realised by a designer. Then, the 

repeat pattern is likely to fail during printing. The 

prints will not flow in a straight line. It is therefore 

important for the design of a motif created to be fitted 

with registration marks on each side in the course of 

planning a square network pattern. 

b) An inverse repeat pattern shows the repeats of a 

motif in a mirror-like reflection, one after another. 

“Inverting or reversing ... the design is turned a quarter 

turn, either clockwise or counter clock wise for each 

C D 

A: Half drop pattern 

B: Alternate pattern (up and down) 

C: Regular repeat patten 

D: Full drop pattern 

B 

successive imprint position.” (Kafka 1973, 27) 

During printing, the original motif periodically repeats 

by showing one section in a normal range of exact 

arrangements. And the next pattern is printed in a 

reverse—in an opposite direction. 

c) Alternate repeat patterns display patterns, which 

occur in turns—by rotation side down or up in turns. 

That is to say, a motif can be made to alternate by 

rotating around at a single point in a regular recurring 

order; facing up and then down moving uniformly in 

one direction. 

d) Full drop patterns run in a straight grid of horizontal 

and vertical lines during printing. Kafka (1973, 26) 

argues, “A full drop repeat ... is sometimes known as the 

diaper repeat, because of the triangular pattern which 

it creates to the eye as one views it.” The obtained 

patterns appear in rhythmic right angles and rows. 

e) Half-drop (step repeat) patterns display part of a 

design or a motif down, or up. On half drop, the motif 

is purposely made to appear staggered by a half in two 

equal or corresponding parts—by rows or columns. 

Kafka (1973, 26) explains that half drop “... shows each 

horizontal row of imprints dropped one-half of an 

imaginary box.” That is to say, the second row of a motif 

can be made to appear precisely dropped and then 

another one may repeat down at exactly half of the 

area. 

In a thorough manner, it is important to add or include 

registration marks on every type of motif or design created 

before setting it to function as a repeat pattern. Necessary 

registration marks must be put on a design during the 

last stage of planning a motif and they are extremely 

unavoidable for designs with more than two colours. 

Decorating fabrics with more than two colours 

In general multi-colour prints display more than one 

colour on a surface of a fabric. The process and technique 

is determined by methods and approaches chosen by a 

fabric decorator. Let us say; if the obtained motif shows 

three colours. Then, the process of executing a design will 

demand for three different silk screens or mesh(s) for each 

colour in a separate way. 

176 177

Start by preparing a separate screen or stencil paper for 

each colour using one of the methods—indicated in the 

section associated with screen printing. 

Assuming that the task undertaken is on a low cost budget, 

a paper stencil, a soft sponge, fabric or a cloth material and 

printing ink (paste) or colouring dyes from plants can be 

enough for a start. 

Almost always, colours chosen—are expected to be few, 

at least not more than three. Reason being that the more 

colours you use, the higher the costs of printing and 

production. 

Since each colour is separated on a full component of a 

mesh, or a stencil. Apart from that, use a light table to draw 

each colour on a stencil separately. Light tables are different; 

they are made in a horizontal or tilted box. On top, there is a 

translucent glass with a light behind it. As an alternative you 

can use the ordinary window containing a transparent glass. 

After that cut out each shape of a colour on a stencil. The 

shapes must be exact. 

If all colours at hand are well represented on separate 

stencils; fix each one of them on a separate mesh in precise 

positions. Print one colour at a time with the assistance 

of a sketch and follow the provided guides presented as 

registration marks. 

Screen A 

Screen C 

Screen B 

Screen A: 

The �rst colour; (Black) is printed 

Screen B: 

The second colour; (Red) is added 

on top of black 

Screen C: 

Yellow colour is printed last; to 

�nish the print. 

How to make a simple batik 

The inexperienced learner should be guided on how to 

make batik in this way: 

Start by making a sketch and where necessary add some 

few colours in the sketch. Belfer (1992, 26) observes that “A 

certain amount of preliminary thinking is always necessary, 

but a complete coloured” sketch “can be very restricting if 

used as a model to be duplicated in the batik process.” 

However, your favourite painting or drawing can also be a 

good starting point for the necessary sketch. And surely, 

as learner your first batik may not at all time produce 

satisfactory intended results. 

That is to say, save materials to make a new one soon 

after, or when you realise that you are unable to meet the 

expectations of the task at hand. 

Here are some tools and materials, which may be needed to 

make the batik artwork: 

Bucket with water A clean cloth Source of heat, stove 

Sketch Sisal brushes Pins 

Paraffin wax Dyes Iron box 

Salt for fixing dyes 

A tin for heating 

wax 

Sheets of old 

newspapers 

A cloth or fabric meant for a batik artwork should be clean 

white. If possible use a pure cotton fabric. An already 

coloured cloth material may cause wrong interpretations of 

colours after sustaining colouring dyes. 

Transfer the sketch by drawing it on a cloth in a suitable 

larger size preferred. As you transfer the sketch, it is feasible 

to eliminate most of the unwanted details—keep only what 

you think is worthwhile (detail) as you pay serious attention 

to the essential elements and principles of design. “In batik, 

line and shape formations are the initial design elements 

considered.” (Belfer 1992, 26) 

After sketching, make ready the (cloth) surface of the batik 

by mounting newspapers on one side of the cloth or fabric. 

That is to say, papers should be fastened or pinned below/ 

under; not on top—where the outlines of a sketch were 

earlier on drawn. 

Then, lay the pile (of the fabric and underpinned paper) 

down on a clean flat surface. After that, boil wax. 

178 179

When wax dissolves into liquid form, pick a sizeable sisal 

brush that is harmonious with the apparent detail as it may 

be seen on the sketch. 

Slowly by slowly, dole out hot wax to feel up all the parts 

that you regard—to represent areas for—direction or 

source of light. In the meantime, the process of waxing 

and application is habitually determined by the nature of a 

planned design or task. 

The more you add wax at a beginning stage, the brighter 

the results you will finally be able to achieve. Balance wax 

distributions throughout and liken every detail of the 

spillage (of hot wax) with the specified source (direction) of 

light. 

Generally, at this stage any mistake done is irreversible. 

Mix a small spoon of salt; it fixes colouring dyes into the 

fibers of the fabric—with a dilute colouring dye of your 

choice in a separate container, add enough water, then 

spread the attained mix all over the surface of the batik. 

Also, the colouring dyes used on batiks are added in various 

ways or stages—appropriate to particular circumstances; 

starting from lighter (usually dilute) to (strong) darker. 

Occasionally, a creative artist can use monochrome colours 

alone or primary colours as red, yellow and blue. 

Some types of dyes are used after boiling then on fire, while 

others are used directly. Belfer (1992, 52) warns, “Although 

some dyes are nontoxic, many are manufactured with 

substances considered to be toxic if they are taken into the 

body even with natural dyes.” Be very cautious. 

Wet or soaked batik artworks have got to be taken out 

to dry at each stage of adding colouring dyes. After that, 

repeat the same process of waxing, stage-by-stage over and 

to the further side of the already waxed areas. 

As a matter of fact, batiks appear nice with cracks—caused 

by covering the entire artwork surface with a thick solid 

layer of hot wax added by spreading wax indiscriminately all 

over an already finished batik. Wait for wax to dry and then 

break layers of wax into cracks. 

Use a sponge to add a very strong colouring dye of your 

choice into the cracks by squeezing hard, for dyes to 

penetrate thoroughly into the surface of a fabric. (At this 

stage pins must be taken-off). 

After that, take it out to dry. And prepare to remove off all 

the papers and wax by squeezing and rinsing. 

When all wax is removed from the batik artwork, iron it well. 

This is supposed to be done with clean papers below the 

batik and above—the batik artwork shall be sandwiched 

between the layers of papers. 

Where there is need to rectify or emphasise essential details, 

a marker or pen can be used. But, make sure that added 

details do not influence any of your misguided judgements 

such as mistakes. Frame the finished batik and make it ready 

for a critique or an exhibition. 

Exercise 

1. Design a motif from a source of inspiration obtained 

from the surroundings of your classroom or school. It 

will be printed in two colours for a table cloth needed 

by the wild life club of your school. 

2. Produce a 6 yards office curtain using multi-colours 

in a tie-dye technique. Use a motif from a source of 

inspiration that represents a place of worship in your 

neighbourhood. The colours and images used in 

the motif must depict some definite activities of the 

worshipping group. 

3. The majority of your friends have dropped out of 

school because of manageable social dilemmas like: 

a) Early marriages 

b) Problems of drug abuse 

c) Homosexuality and promiscuity 

d) HIV/AIDS 

Choose one theme from the provided checklist and one 

approach of decorating fabrics that you know to create an 

awareness campaign in your school. 

180 181

CHAPTER ELEVEN 

They made “clay representations of animals on granaries” in 

figurative two or three-dimensional art forms. Ultimately, 

Sculpture 

today sculpture is used for very many purposes. Hence 

Sculpture is the art of creating two or three dimensional 

the reason why sculpture artworks are commonly found 

forms that occupy or interact with real space. 

in public spaces or places such as inside and outside 

Creative functional artworks of sculpture can be produced 

community buildings like hotels, schools and churches. 

in various forms such as abstract, real-life and relief. Yet gain, 

Elements and principles of sculptural design 

nearly all kinds of sculpture artworks can be produced by 

A successful artwork of sculpture is more than forms. Just 

using materials like wood, stone, iron, metal, cement and very 

like every other artwork. Sculpture is produced on suitable 

many other recycled and natural materials. 

guidelines of elements and principles of design. Mujjuzi 

Apart from that, sculpture artworks can be creatively 

(2009; 19) comments, “Space, mass, volume, line, texture, 

executed by using techniques like carving, assembling, 

light and movement are included in elements of sculpture” 

welding, patching, modelling and casting et cetera. 

as a way of achieving the most delightful designs of 

In Africa, sculpture was done for magical worships, 

rituals and other social customs. It was mainly decorative, 

sometimes smooth or textured, carved from wood or 

clay. Levin (2005, 111), offers a rational explanation: “Until 

sculpture artworks. 

Let us have a brief analysis of the basic practical information 

concerning elements and principles of design and how they 

can be used on a sculpture artwork: 

colonial times, when a tourist market for art was developed, 

a. Lines and contours are imaginary elements of design 

almost all African sculpture had—and still has—religious or 

used to enhance structural interconnections of forms 

magical purposes.” 

on a sculpture. Line and contour are guided by outer 

Besides, most of the sculptural artworks found in the 

and inner line formations that give movement and 

various parts of Africa are linked to the locale of the 

vitality to the sculpture. “Movement patterns may be 

executing material, as well as the environment and people's 

curved, angular, geometric and so on.” (Peck 2007, 43) 

ways of life. For instance “most West African sculptures are 

carved in wood, but superb bronze and iron figures are 

also produced, while some funerary figures are created 

in terracotta and mud. The strange and uncompromising 

forms found in West African sculpture are rarely the unique 

creations of an inspired artist—the sculptures have always 

been made to fulfil specific functions.” (Ham 2009, 69) notes 

b. Mass is counterbalanced with solid. We can briefly 

say that solid affects space created by a supporting 

material used to execute a sculpture artwork. On the 

other hand mass is the solid material of a sculpture. It 

fills up in the space. Both mass and solid—in the actual 

world, exist in three-dimensional space. 

Clearly, then, as creative artist and learners of sculpture, it is 

c. Colour is by large a natural occurrence of sculpture. It 

important to learn more about sculpture and its functions 

is usually determined by the type of materials used to 

from African tribal people—their various ways of making 

execute a distinct sculpture artwork. Several materials 

useful sculpture from obtainable materials especially wood 

in which sculptures are done can be finished without 

and basing on reasons such as easy harvest, abundance 

adding colour on their surfaces. Reason being, surfaces 

and availability—in sufficient large quantities; adequate for 

of sculpture artworks can still appear well without 

producing sculpture artworks. 

adding any colour pigments. Peck (2007, 78) discerns 

Trowell et al. (1953, 117) affirm that in Uganda “... The Bamba 

carved wooden figures” in addition to “the Bahutu and 

Kiga.” The “Banyoro did carving” as well as “modelling.” 

Furthermore, “Carved figures” were also found “among the 

Lango.” 

this point: “the use of colour is, of course, a matter of 

personal preference.” For the reason that, sometimes 

through experiments, surfaces of sculpture artworks 

are decorated with paints. 

182 183

d. Voids are seen as open spaces that connect one area 

from a positive continuous part of a sculpture. Peck 

(2007, 19) notes, “... negative forms are created by the 

empty spaces or voids between the masses.” Voids are 

used for enhancing a sculpture design, managing the 

weight and in some situations using voids accounts for 

the increased prevalence of balance. 

e. Rhythm and movement; “ ... just as you feel rhythm 

in music and dance, often to the point of moving your 

body to its engaging patterns, so will you feel rhythm 

in the emerging sculptural forms of your imagination.” 

(Peck 2007, 16) Clearly, then, rhythm and movement can 

be useful in sculpture for they are closely connected in 

the matter of character, form and function. 

As you continue working, you will discover very many other 

important elements and principles of sculptural design. 

For the meantime, let us try to look at the different ways in 

which a sculpture artwork can be executed. 

Methods of sculpture 

The various kinds of sculpture artworks that we see are 

in most cases executed in two ways; direct and indirect. 

“Whether carving is direct or indirect it makes no difference. 

It is the finished object that counts.” (Curtis 1999, 98) 

Here is how both methods can be used to produce a 

sculpture artwork: 

1. Direct (taille direct) is a procedure explained by Rich 

(1988, 265) with a poem from Michelangelo; “... the 

sculptor never invents anything that does not lie 

concealed and resting within the block of marble and 

that no hand that is not animated by the spirit will 

extract from the block what lies concealed within ...” 

Undoubtedly, this is a subtraction method of working. 

Because of that, the direct method of producing 

sculpture artworks occurs by ways of cutting off 

unwanted layers outside from a material to obtain a 

shape (artwork), which represents the sketch. 

2. Indirect carving uses a small model known as a 

maquette. Thus, the sculptor copies the proportions of 

a small scale model to shape a sculpture artwork. Rich 

(1988, 262) asserts, “Indirect is physically economical for 

the sculptor.” 

Nonetheless, nearly all indirect sculptural artworks can 

easily be executed from materials such as clay, cement, 

soap and wax. 

Types of sculpture 

Sculpture can be made in different ways such as relief, 

inverse/intaglio and high relief. In spite of that, relief 

sculpture is meant to be viewed from only its front position 

and sculpture in the round stands in open space, where it can 

be viewed from nearly all directions. 

Others are environments and kinetics. All these classified 

groups are important and they are highly regarded by 

nearly all practicing sculptors. 

Here is a brief analysis of each one of them: 

1. Relief sculpture shows some of its parts as raised up 

against those, which are flat on the outside part of a 

two-dimensional area depending on how depth has 

been involved. It can be executed with materials like 

clay, cement, wood and metal et cetera. 

Most times, the process of making a relief artwork 

depends on demands stated in a task at hand. That 

is to say, it can also be creatively produced in other 

variations of low or inverse, high relief and abstract et 

cetera. Here is how: 

a. Bas-relief (Basso Rilievo or low relief) displays low relief 

projections of ideal images. It is nice to use bas-relief 

on sculpture compositions that contain very many 

figures. For a clear example, look at the surface of a 

coin—officially used as money. A coin is almost always 

made with symbolic images appearing as low relief or 

bas-relief. 

b. High or full relief (Alto Rilievo) shows images leaping 

out from a background surface. Rich (1988, 8) explains, 

“This is the highest type of relief. The forms are often 

modelled in the full round, but remain attached to the 

background, although some portions ... may be entirely 

free from the background.” High relief contains high 

projections so much as almost three-dimensional. 

c. Inverse relief or sunken, hollow (intaglio relief) 

sculpture artworks are made by cutting shapes into the 

surface of a material to form a hollowed out negative 

representation of an image. 

184 185

Examples of inverse relief can be found on architectural 

walls found in Egypt. Rich (1988, 7) asserts, the 

Egyptians outlined figures “by means of grooves or 

furrows cut around forms.” The images appear clearly 

strong and noticeable on account of the sun found in 

that region. 

2. Abstract sculpture does not represent perceivable 

realism. Sculpture artworks made in abstract forms 

rely on shape, form, colour and texture. They are also 

characterised with concept-oriented subject matter. 

Ultimately, abstract sculpture is common done by 

creative sculptors who get captivated by exaggerating 

forms. 

3. Kinetic sculpture is rare. Nonetheless, such artworks 

are commonly described as installations because 

almost always they are constructed and exhibited 

within a gallery. Buser (2006, 529) observes, “In recent 

years, the number of installations has exploded. 

Countless painters, photographers and video artists ... 

Sculptors have constructed kinetic sculpture—work 

that actually moves because of wind or water or is 

powered by an electric motor.” Thus, a kinetic sculpture 

may sometimes involve using video or moving parts 

and the relation of parts to the whole is important for 

the interpretation of a sculpture artwork. 

4. Sculpture in the round is an explanation used for free 

standing artworks made to appear in three dimensional 

spaces. Sculpture in the round is characterised by 

three-dimensional shapes and solid geometric forms. 

A “free standing sculpture, or sculpture in the round 

... is the type that can be viewed from many angles,” 

(Michael et al. 2007, 132) for example a statue of a 

person or an animal where someone could walk 

around.” 

Tools, materials and equipment for sculpture 

The basic materials, equipment and tools—used for 

executing sculptures are many. Bell (1983, 97) laments, 

“The particular interests of a sculptor would lead to some 

additions and omissions although some tools are made for 

specific purposes.” 

Here is a checklist of some necessary tools, materials and 

equipment used in sculpture: 

Traditional/ 

conventional 

materials 

These are the long-established materials 

used by sculptors. They include clay, wood, 

soil, stone, cement, wax, rubber, Plaster of 

Paris, marble, Iron or metal et cetera. 

Include; stone, mallet, sharp sticks, hoe, 

nails, screws, nut, stone, knife and a chisel. 

Others include a hammer, gouge, rasp/ 

file, armature wires and callipers. Also, your 

fingers are partly used in habits carried 

out by certain tools. 

Depends on the artist's inventiveness 

and inspiration. Examples may include 

a bonfire kiln, a cardboard box for storing 

finished works, platform-stand, pedestal, 

bench and tables used during moulding 

and carving. 

It is up to a sculptors' creative mind that 

certain objects can be substituted into 

useful materials—to justify the purpose of 

a favoured material. For example discarded 

plastics, fabrics, metal, sand, saw dust, 

lacquer or wax, plant glue, bones, mud, 

anthill soil and papier mâché et cetera. 

From various local materials and found objects we can find 

useful items or objects for executing sculpture experiments, 

which may later result into powerful artworks. Mujjuzi 

(2009, 27) is more enlightening: “Organic plant materials,” are 

within easy reach of our learning surroundings. 

186 187 

Tools 

Equipment 

Non-traditional/ 

unconventional 

(found materials)

Distinct examples include “dry leaves, tree barks, grass and 

seed pods.” In a remarkable manner, nearly all materials 

of sculpture listed can be easily collected from “shrubs, 

compounds and garbage collection centres” free of charge. 

“Any material that can be shaped in three dimensions 

can be used sculpturally. Certain materials, by virtue 

of their structural and aesthetic properties and their 

availability, have proved especially suitable. The most 

important of these are stone, wood, metal, clay, ivory 

and plaster.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, 46) 

So let us make a brief analysis of some few basic materials 

required for producing a sculpture artwork: 

a. Stone, wood and clay are natural materials used 

to execute sculpture artworks. They can be found in 

most parts of the world. Stone, wood and clay can be 

combined or used separately in various creative ways. 

To produce a sculpture out of them, the artist can do 

carving and/or moulding. Ultimately, stone, wood 

and clay are extracted from their places of origin. For 

instance clay is obtained from swamps; stone is mined 

from quarries or everywhere in different sizes and 

colours. On the contrary, wood comes from forests. 

b. Plastics are everywhere around us. Rich (1998, 353) 

explains, “A plastic is a substance that can be softened, 

cast moulded, or pressed into a desired shape or form.” 

Plastic is cheap and easy to acquire. To shape a plastic 

into a sculpture artwork, the artist has got to heat a 

plastic with fire, or burn it into a solid substance with 

a source of heat or fire. That is to say, choose the right 

types of plastics to avoid spoiling an obtained sculpture 

melt. Therefore, make categorises for the different kinds 

of plastics during planning and preparation. 

c. Iron (metal) is an ordinary material used in sculpture 

for constructions. It might not be common for many 

sculpture artists mainly because metal is expensive. 

In Mujjuzi's (2009, 26) Methodology, “ring wires, 

binding wires and wire mesh” were used for the time 

of explaining procedures and methods of making 

a sculpture. In spite of that, Iron or metal used in 

sculpture—at times; can be obtained from thrown 

away (found) metal objects. 

Modeling stand 

Roughing gouge 

Small roughing gouge 

Bent-shank gouge 

Socket coner chisel 

Conering chisel 

Straight carving gouge 

(large) 

A few examples of equipment and tools used for creating sculpture artworks 

d. Wax is another material used in sculpture. It can make 

maquettes and it can be used to polish and preserve 

surfaces of finished sculpture artwork. The types of 

waxes used by sculptors include (candle) paraffin wax 

and bee wax. 

Waxes are used by nearly all sculptors for some of these 

few justifications: 

• It is easy to mould at normal temperatures. 

• Its tactile quality can be transformed by adding 

other substances such as oils or fats. 

• It is easy to cut or carve into very many shapes. 

• It can also be quickly recycled. 

• Colouring dyes can mix well with wax. 

e. Cement is a grey or greenish powdery substance 

commonly used for construction. It is also a good 

material for building sculpture artworks—done by 

mixing it with sand and water to make mortar or 

concrete. Sculptors prefer using cement for its speed 

of setting and hardening. A sculpture made out of 

cement is generally resistant to atmospheric corrosions 

especially when proper mixtures are done. Cement is 

cheap and easy to handle. 

f. Plaster of Paris is a white powdered substance which 

will become hard when water is added and then mixed 

together with it—in proportionate quantities. 

188 189

Sometimes plaster of Paris is used for full artwork 

executions and for making moulds used during casting. 

Rich (1998) argues, “plaster of Paris is the material 

of choice when the object to be cast is large ... It is 

also employed as a reinforcing material for flexible 

negatives of agar, rubber and gelatine ... For sculptural 

use, the finer-grained plaster are preferable.” A creative 

sculptor will spend less while using plaster of Paris; 

by cutting tatters of raffia or grass and then mix them 

with plaster of Paris. The technique adds durability and 

reinforcement. It is as well very economical. 

Sculpture techniques 

Different approaches can be used to produce artworks 

of sculpture. “Although a sculptor may specialise in, say, 

stone carving or direct metalwork, the art of sculpture is 

not identifiable with any particular craft or set of crafts. It 

presses into its service whatever crafts suit its purposes ...” 

(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, 49) 

Let us make a quick review of the basic sculpture 

techniques using a table checklist here below: 

Riveting 

Fabrication 

Nailing 

Modelling 

Is used by sculptors to attach sheets of metal 

or on wood and other surfaces. 

Riveting can be done on small or big sculpture 

artworks. It can make magnificent decorative 

textures. It also serves as a hammer to a nail. 

This technique constitutes construction by 

using metal or wood. The action and process 

at times requires welding to construct 

artworks of sculpture. Metal artists usually seek 

professional help from specialists. 

A sculpture can be built with the assistance of 

a hammer to drive nails into a surface as a way 

of holding two parts together. Apart from that, 

nailing alone can be used to produce relief 

sculptures on two dimensional surfaces. Nails 

just like hammers are made in different sizes. 

A sculpture artwork can be executed in 

approaches like, slabbing, pallets or balls and 

coils by ways of modeling; this technique uses 

the additional approach—with materials like 

clay, wax and paper machê. Rich (1988, 512) 

offers a rational explanation: “Modelling is 

a process of addition; whereas carving is a 

process of subtraction.” 

190 191 

Carving 

Construction 

Tying 

Soldering 

Assembling 

Casting 

This is among the commonest techniques of 

producing a sculpture. It can be done by ways 

of cutting or engraving to obtain a shape of 

the presumed sculpture artwork. Carving can 

be done on materials like wood, stone, clay, 

glass, cement and some types of plastics. 

Is mainly architectural. A sculpture can be 

creatively erected with materials such as card 

board papers, books, metal, stones, pieces of 

wood and from any solid firm materials that 

are able to sustain weight or pressure—hard 

enough to with stand a construction process. 

This is a technique of attaching parts of 

a sculpture artwork—by fastening them 

together using a string, a wire or a similar 

cord. Spilsbury (2009, 9) argues, “constructed 

sculptures are made from different materials 

combined and joined together to form a 

three-dimensional object.” By using a system 

of “tying together.” 

This technique requires special hand held 

equipment used for joining wires and other 

metallic objects together. Hale (1994, 45) 

asserts, “soldering is an extremely useful 

technique used by sculptors. It makes a very 

strong bond between metal surfaces and it 

does not require the high heat that welding 

does.” It is also good for surface decorations. 

It is easier to do assembling, mainly because 

a sculptor can use objects within easy reach 

to make sculpture artworks. Baldwin (1967, 

27) argues, “when a sculptor assembles his 

creations from scrapped machine parts, setting 

them in motion is an obvious development.” 

Distinctly, well composed assemblages can 

result into free standing sculpture artworks 

round and relief. 

Is a technique used by sculptors to shape 

artworks by using a mould and solid materials 

of molten metal or slip clay and sometimes 

wax—to mould a resemblance of the original 

artwork. The obligatory material meant for use 

as molten has got to be liquefied by heating, 

or be saturated with water. Materials used 

during casting include wax, sand, sawdust, 

plastics, cement and sometimes glue. Mamiya 

& Kleiner (2009, 3) assert, “casting sculptural 

technique falls into two basic categories, 

subtractive and additive.” These must also be 

accredited to the learner.

Gluing 

Can make sculpture in very many different 

ways. This is mainly because; there are so many 

types of adhesive substance which can be 

used as glue to make sculpture artworks. 

Peck (2007, 161) argues, “... gluing may be 

a better choice” to build small sculptures. 

Whereas “any of the objects used in found— 

object sculpture may also lend themselves to 

gluing rather than drilling.” The leaner should 

be notified that outdoor sculptures necessitate 

using waterproof glue, while indoor requires 

carpenter's glue. 

Preparing clay for making a sculpture 

Despite the fact that Michelangelo regarded clay as an 

inferior medium suitable for only producing maquettes, 

it is still greatly desired by many sculptors today. Clay is 

cheap and it is one of the most accessible sculpture material 

locally used in many African art schools. 

As a sculptor who wishes to produce artworks from clay, it 

is important to have an acquaintance with clay by visiting 

its sources, dig and touch it. Clay is mainly excavated 

from swamps—in places where deposits of stiff, sticky 

fine-grained earth form as a result of a gradual chemical 

weathering of rocks. Thus, go and visit a swamp so that you 

mine your own clay. 

Clay is a natural material with a fine quality, which allows it 

to be easily shaped—governable drying and softening. 

If clay is dug up from swamps, it goes through different 

stages of preparations. That is to say, using clay with all its 

impurities may cause undesirable results for the executed 

final artwork of a sculpture. 

Impurities can be removed from clay by handpicking and 

also by making clay more wet (slip). Or, dry and smash it 

to pass well through a sieve. All ways can lead to a proper 

sorting process—to get rid of all chaff or unwanted 

materials. A sieve is quick for this purpose. It works well with 

dry and wet clay. 

Clay that has passed through a sieve must be mixed well 

with some specified amounts of grog. The purpose of grog 

is to decrease clay plasticity and to increase its structural 

strength. Grog can be locally acquired by sieving smashed 

fired bricks or unglazed pottery (terra cotta). 

However, too much use of grog can diminish the strength of 

a fired sculpture. 

Extremely wet clay (slip) can be drained to dry by throwing 

or spreading it randomly—on a clean flat metal surface 

such as an iron sheet. Then put it under sun. 

When clay reaches the ready stage to be worked for a 

planned task remove it from a drying surface and pack it 

in a cool, clean and dry plastic container or polythene bag 

to mature. By maturing clay will be at a regarded stage of 

plasticity—ready to be used at any opportune time. 

Apart from that, ready and well prepared clay can further 

go through another process known as wedging along with 

kneading. When it reaches a befitting stage of working 

Gardner (2006, 22) explains, “Kneading or wedging means 

working the clay with the hands until it becomes the same 

consistency throughout.” 

Undoubtedly, ready clay should be adequately moist; it 

can be checked by pinching and squeezing—clay between 

fingers and a thumb with one hand. If clay sticks or remains 

on the fingers then it is not yet ready for proper use. Wet 

clay lessens working efficiency. Where necessary, at the 

appropriate stages of wedging and kneading (clay) one 

may make consultations from a skilled person dealing with 

clay. “There are many ways to wedge clay and all styles 

take some practice to master” (Müller 2007, 51). That is to 

say, almost always, actions differ and so does working 

environments used by clay artists. 

Müller (2007, 51) is more enlightening: “Wedging clay should 

not require too much effort, but it does take some practice 

to master.” At all times, clay learners must be encouraged to 

understand the process and actions of clay. 

To wind up our clay preparation processes, we need to 

make sense of Potters (1912) remarks, “working with clay 

to make a sculpture does not have 

distinctive rules since sculptors 

develop individual senses of quality 

and ability through continuous 

work and practice with the various 

materials.” As a creative sculpture 

artist, train yourself to handle clay 

through experiments. 

Hands 

wedging clay. 

A necessary 

stage of 

preparing clay. 

192 193

Maquette 

A maquette is a translation of a sketch. Actually, it is the 

sketch model of a sculpture artwork. 

A maquette can be produced from materials within easy 

reach of the sculptors’ surroundings. For example clay, 

papers, sticks, plant fibers, soap, stones, a sponge, wires, saw 

dust and a pop-corn (is also a source of inspiration). 

The advantage of using a maquette to produce a sculpture 

is that; it gives a sculptor freedom of exploration with 

various obtainable materials using a considerable amount 

of ideas. Ashwin (1982, 212) adds, “preparatory studies for a 

sculpture tend to take form easily by using small” models 

of “clay or wax, ... they are easy to view by rotation from 

many positions in round form.” In other words, it is easier to 

visualise a maquette on every side than using drawings for 

the time of executing a sculpture artwork. 

Certainly, some sculpture experts recommend that, before 

starting to work on a planned or provided task. It is feasible 

to produce a maquette from an actual material in which 

the final artwork shall be created. For example, if you plan 

to make the final design of a sculpture with cement, try to 

make a maquette with the same material. Under normal 

circumstances, there is no official size a maquette should be. 

Nonetheless, in various school situations “sculpture over 

76cm in any dimension cannot be accepted.” This is a rule 

stated by the Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education, 

Regulations and Syllabuses, 2009 – 2012 (Uganda National 

Examinations Board, 2008, 226). That being so, avoid making 

very big maquettes, which go further away in height above 

30cm—below is substantially reasonable and appropriate. 

An armature 

In the words of Hale (1994, 156), “The inner armature 

structure should be well engineered so that there is a core 

of solidity and support to the whole sculpture.” Certainly, 

the armature is an inner framework on which a sculpture is 

shaped to support the working material for example clay, 

wood, bricks, fibreglass, papier-mâché, plastics, mortar, 

grass, fodder or straw and any other available material for 

making a sculpture artwork. Almost always, the armature 

operates as a skeleton. 

As a consequence, some sculptors use materials like sticks, a 

mesh, metal, “strapping wire, aluminium armature wire, thin 

steel or brass rods and anything else that can curve, bend, 

hold its shape and be joined to other wires and to the base” 

(Peck 2007, 89) to work as the supporting framework. 

Almost always, the armatures of a sculpture assist to 

obtain a better shape by using a wire mesh and tie wires 

although the main purpose is to enforce the shape on the 

(iron bars) material. It also helps to reduce excess weight 

and extravagant use of the expensive scarce materials. 

Apart from that, other sculptors use only the armature to 

thoroughly make complete or finished sculptures. 

It is important for learners to be properly guided and be 

given enough assistance at the critical stages of building an 

armature. 

Sculpture from wood 

Artworks of such a kind are also known as 'wooden 

sculpture' because of the material in which they are 

extracted. 

Wood is among the frequently used material to make 

sculpture by the majority of African sculpture artists. 

Currently, very many artists with access to wood have used 

it to make outstanding sculpture artworks. 

Mujjuzi (2009, 2, 4) reminds us, “It is only wood as a 

component part of a plant material, which has been 

explored for sculptural practices.” Probably because wood 

is strong, easy to carve without using great effort and it is 

highly appreciated. 

Sculptors who make artworks out of wood use mature 

and well-grown tree logs. Well kept, to dry before turning 

them into sculpture artworks. Using green wood to make a 

sculpture is a practice considered as working with recently 

cut wood. 

Rich (1988, 305) asserts, “The use of a 'green wood' may 

result in irreparable damage to a finished carving if a wood 

is not adequately seasoned.” That is to say, by seasoning a 

wood is taken through various stages of drying. 

Seasoning is crucial for making a sculpture stay longer 

in shape and the final artwork will be in a better position 

to withstand potential wood attacking insects as well as 

resisting bad weather. 

194 195

Keep the wood up right (straight/vertical) in a sheltered 

place and it must be well supported—away from the 

ground for air to circulate into the wood pores properly. In 

general, uneven drying may result into cracks on the surface 

of a finished wooden sculpture. Dried or seasoned wood 

has less potential of cracking. 

By default, if a wood (log) starts to crack—from its centre. 

Find a hand drill and make a hole in the centre (of the log). 

A drill uses an auger as a spiral bit to make holes. 

Then, mix sawdust or wood husks with wood glue and then, 

fill the mix into the cracks. Sawdust or wood shavings can 

be used to fill up the cracks on a wood. 

On the other hand, wood has two levels of quality known as 

hardwood and soft wood. These types are also categorised as 

deciduous for hard wood and coniferous for soft wood. 

Here is a table display showing categories of wood: 

Coniferous wood 

Deciduous wood 

Is composed of cedars, cypress, fir, 

hemlock, juniper, larch, pine, sequoia, 

spruce and yew. 

Consists of ash, beech, elm, eucalyptus, 

hickory, lime, mahogany, maple, oak, 

plane, teak, satin wood, sycamore and 

walnut. 

Generally, hardwood is more difficult to carve well into 

a sculpture artwork, irrespective of its essential features 

like fine forms and high polishes. Yet again, it is good at 

withstanding wear, pressure or damage during and after 

carving. 

Finished wooden sculpture artworks can be well preserved 

by polishing on their surfaces with hot wax, or oil. Peck 

(2007, 159) suggests, “Kiwi shoe paste wax”—it has got 

choices of tones necessary for finishing a wood base. 

Ultimately, there is no advice on which type of wood a 

sculptor can favourably use to produce a successful work of 

art. Practice and skill guides a sculptor to finding suitable 

wood for making a sculpture. 

Stone sculpture 

Stone is an abundant material just like wood. It can be 

obtained easily from the environment around us and it 

exists in very many types and sizes. Sometimes stone is 

used for the time of constructing a sculpture artwork. 

In a different way it can be used to make sculpture artworks 

by carving. For example marble. In some parts of Africa 

steatite/soap-rock (soapstone) is used to make functional 

sculptures. It is commonly used by a Kisii tribe found on 

the highlands of Nyanza, in western Kenya. Rich (1998, 512) 

explains that “steatite is easily cut or carved with a knife and 

it is fairly permanent for indoor if precautions are taken to 

prevent abrasion.” 

Nonetheless, carving stone comes about with painstaking 

labour and so does the tools needed. They must be strong 

to endure with the slow progress. 

As a beginner who might be interested in stone carving, 

start with some few available tools such as: 

• A metallic mallet or hammer 

• A riffler 

• Chisels. Where there is scarcity, shape a 

• 6 inch nail to make an improvised type of tool 

needed to carve a stone. 

More tools will keep adding to your limited list accordingly, 

depending on the tasks to be undertaken. For instance, dust 

masks, hearing protectors and gloves. These are some of the 

basic tools, which may be needed for a secured working 

process. 

Apart from that, in the course of carving stone; its surface 

should never be marked or demarcated by using ink pens 

since most ink types are permanent. A piece of charcoal or 

chalk is good for that purpose. 

Always remember to use a sand bag (to rest the stone) in 

the course of carving. A sand bag reduces extra noise and 

friction onto a stone surface. It also protects and keeps a 

sculpture artwork safe from down grading. But since stone 

is heavy, it is certainly good for a sculptor to start carving it 

from its originating source. 

As we mentioned earlier on there are very many 

kinds of stone used for executing sculpture 

artworks. For instance marble and soap stone, 

other types include limestone or sedimentary 

(stratified) igneous and metamorphic rocks. 

Fundamentally, finishing a sedimentary type of 

stone is less easy—particularly limestone. 

Examples of metal 

tools used for 

carving stone 

196 197

Rich(1998, 250) offers a reasonable explanation: “A study of 

Michelangelo's nearly finished stone carvings show that 

he worked in a manner similar to Greeks and did not make 

much use of the flat chisel, proceeding from the use of 

the claw chisel to finishing stone abrasives.” Here we see 

that stone especially Marble was a common material for 

sculptors like Michelangelo, which was very hard for them 

to finish it. 

Casting clay 

As Rich (1988, 39) reminds us, “There are two major methods 

of casting with earthly clay; 1. Pressing or squeezing clay 

into moulds, or hand forming against a mould. 2. Slip 

casting. Earth-clay or terra cotta can be employed as a 

positive casting material and cast it in sectional plaster 

moulds when more than one copy of terra cotta is desired.” 

Clearly, then, casting necessitates a mould—made up of 

two parts or more—known as a positive and a negative. 

Where by, the part with a hollow cavity is its negative and 

the positive part is the place where a desired sculpture 

forms by using hot molten (metal, glass) or wet slip made 

out of clay. 

Types of moulds 

By simple explanation a mould is a reverse form of a cast. 

It uses a hollow space to reproduce a resembling shape of 

the original using liquefied substances that will later harden 

to form a required shape. The solid materials of clay slip or 

molten cools from inside a mould, it turns hard by setting to 

form an assumed shape. 

Here are some types of moulds: 

Slip mould 

In Segal's (1991, 28) Ceramic Fabrication, 

“slip casting is a technique which involves 

pouring a slip into a porous mould often 

made from plaster of Paris (calcium sulphate 

hemihydrate), it absorbs liquids and 

deposits a solid material at the mould walls.” 

It should be tied well to avoid falling apart. 

At certain intervals the mould containing 

slip is shaken carefully for a slip membrane 

(inside) to fortify well onto a mould surface. 

Then, residual slip can be poured out as the 

shaped artwork drains to form a precise 

shape with adequate thickness. 

Gelatine mould 

(glue mould) 

Piece mould 

Press mould 

This type of mould is not very strong, but it 

is good for reproducing small and detailed 

sculpture artworks. Creative sculptors who 

make artworks with a gelatine moulds use 

glue, water and glycerine. Rich (1988, 101) 

explains, “a gelatine mould is occasionally 

referred to as a glue mould, but glue is 

actually an impure and cheaper form of 

a gelatine and does not possess as much 

elasticity.” 

As Rich (1988, 265) has remarked, “a piece 

mould is a negative mould ... made with 

several piece sections. The number of 

sections to be made are determined by 

under cuts of the artwork meant to be 

cast,” and its sections are shaped in such a 

way that; they are easy to remove “without 

fracturing” the positive cast. This type of 

mould is constructed in separate halves 

and where necessary a mould created can 

again be reassembled for another cast 

reproduction. 

On a press mould, the action and process is 

done by pressing a prototype of the exact 

sculpture artwork into a wet lump of clay or 

a similar material—by applying pressure on 

it. The generated negative shape or space is 

later on used to cast another exact sculpture 

artwork. A press mould can be used to make 

a large number of individual press-cast 

pieces. Peterson et al. (2003, 97) remark, 

“laying a slab of clay over a plaster form or 

pressing clay between a plaster moulds is 

also possible.” Certainly, a press mould is 

typically used for casting low reliefs. 

A slip-cast. 

Liquid clay was 

poured into a 

Plaster of Paris 

mould. It absorbs 

water from the 

clay slip, leaving 

a layer of clay 

against the surface 

of the mould. 

198 199 

Clay cast 

Plaster of Paris 

molds

This is an 

example of a 

bonfire kiln, 

showing unfired 

clay sculpture 

and pottery 

ready for firing 

in a narrow 

ditch—dug in 

the ground. 

Waste mould 

Rich (1988, 512) says, a waste mould “is a 

negative mould that has to be broken up 

and destroyed or 'wasted' in order to remove 

or release the positive cast contained within 

its interior ... The advantage of using a waste 

mould is that it eliminates the fine lines ... 

that result when a piece mould is used.” Also, 

“only one positive can be secured.” Clearly, 

then, the material used during casting has 

got to be hard or strong to avoid a collapse. 

As a learner dealing with assignments of art related with 

casting, you will realise that mould making and casting is 

not for sculpture tasks alone, it can be used in very many 

other art fields like pottery, jewellery making and other 

multimedia crafts to forge and cast. In that manner, moulds 

are made for very many purposes in different ways. 

Kilns 

The types of kilns used for firing clay are many and they 

are differentiated by the ways in which they function. All 

kilns burn, bake, or dry sculpture as well as pottery. Digolo 

et al (1988, 117) allege, “... some are fired by gas, others by 

electricity, wood or oil.” 

Here is a table list of notable kiln types: 

Wood kiln Coke kiln Electric kiln 

Saw dust Bon fire Open fire kiln 

Coal kiln Oil kiln Gas kiln 

As indicated in the previous paragraphs, the purposes of 

kilns are almost identical wherever you go, even though 

pottery artists and sculptors have individual ways of using 

each existing types. 

Fresh sticks and tree barks 

Clay sculpture 

Pottery 

The sizes of kilns and how each type uses energy are to a 

large extent different. Thereby, an electric kiln is known to 

be the cleanest but it is very expensive to use. Electric kilns 

are well liked because sculptors or pottery artists—using 

such a kiln do not need constant attention. Even though, 

firing clay ware requires a very close attention—watching to 

control the process of firing. 

In this set of circumstance, our aim shall be centred on 

equipping learners with knowledge of firing clay using very 

simple methods and at a low cost. 

As an example let as make a brief review on how to fire 

pottery with a bonfire kiln. If such a kiln is carefully used, 

it can burn clay artworks at higher temperatures in the 

shortest time possible. It can be lit well by using fuels such 

as cow dung, saw dust, brushwood, straw or reeds—spread it 

well inside a shallow ditch dug on sloping open ground. 

Then, carefully place clay artworks on the well laid 'fuels' 

inside the ditch. And then, add more fuels on top. Other 

kinds of fuels may include sticks of fire wood, recently 

harvested fresh wood and tree barks. 

Start the fire, a bonfire kiln can reach high temperatures but 

it cannot effectively maintain them. That is to say, watch 

as fuels burn and where possible add more or keep on 

enforcing the fuels in sufficient amounts when needed for 

fire to keep burning. 

After burning, wait until when terra cotta (unglazed, 

brownish-red earthenware) has cooled down—back at a 

fairly low temperature and then remove them from the 

bonfire kiln. It is also necessary to clean off some ashes from 

them. 

Then, take the fired sculpture artworks for display. 

Welding sculpture 

Welding is a method of joining metal pieces or parts 

together to produce a sculpture artwork. 

The process of working is done by using electricity (this 

is expensive), or by using bottled portable oxyacetylene 

welding gases (it is cheap) carrying oxygen and acetylene. 

As a matter of safety, during welding wear dark eyeglasses 

to protect eyes from extreme bright light caused by welding 

fires. Dark eye-glasses and other safety gadgets are as well 

necessary even to those watching a welding process. 

200 201

“Welding equipment is largely used for joining and cutting 

metal.” Two pieces of welded metal—join by heating. The 

metal melts and fuses to connect thus forming a single 

metallic piece. The kind of metal most widely used for 

welded sculpture is mild steel. 

“In a brazed joint, the parent metals are not actually fused 

together but are joined by an alloy that melts at a lower 

temperature than the parent metals. Brazing is particularly 

useful for making joints between different kinds of 

metal, which cannot be done by welding and for joining 

non-ferrous metals.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 1991, 51) 

Forging is the direct shaping of metal by bending, 

hammering and cutting.” (Rogers, 2011) 

During welding, keep away objects and substances that 

may be flammable. Welding can cause serious fires and 

burns. It can also lead to serious electrical shocks and other 

hazards. Additionally, welding produces poisonous fumes. 

If you are a beginner of soldering and welding in sculpture 

and you wish to use this method to execute a work of 

art, start with getting appropriate information from an 

instructor, teacher or supplier. Combine every detail and 

advice to distinctly avoid mistakes. Welding and soldering 

can be learnt by self-obsession. 

Finishing a sculpture 

Without doubt sculpture artworks can be created from 

found objects, natural and artificial materials carefully 

picked from our surrounding environment. Then, surely 

finishing sculpture artworks vary accordingly. For instance, 

some sculpture surfaces can be finished by polishing, 

painting, chiselling, burning and sanding. Rich (1992, 31) 

suggests, “... in using sandpaper for finishing purposes, 

always begin by using a coarser paper and follow with the 

finer papers.” As you work to finish a sculpture artwork. 

Be mindful of the final place, where the artwork shall be 

displayed. For the reason that, some sculpture materials are 

not good for outdoor display. 

Nevertheless, not a single sculpture necessitates decorative 

paint as a protective coating for finishing its surface. 

Unless if there is a cause with a reasonable explanation. For 

instance, iron oxide on metal can have a beneficial effect on 

preventing it from rusting. 

On the other hand, mounting a finished sculpture compels 

a creative sculptor to finding a support or a base on which 

the artwork shall be displayed. A base used on a sculpture 

is commonly known as a pedestal. It provides bottom 

support to a finished artwork of a sculpture for the time of 

displaying it in an exhibition. 

Exercise 

1. Choose one theme from a list provided and produce a 

sculpture artwork: 

• Consequences of corruption 

• Nature provides abundantly 

• Drunkardness 

• Causes of hunger 

• War children 

• A health mother means good child mortality. 

The executed sculpture must be creatively depicted in the 

round. Use found objects to carry out the task. 

2. Some sculpture artists like to carve hands, others 

like feet. Choose three parts from your body with 

the exception of those mentioned and make a well 

composed relief sculpture using clay. The composition 

MUST be simple and expressive. You can go further and 

make a cast out of it. 

3. The women in your home area have suffered rape as 

a result of poor Human Rights for Women. Hope after 

Rape (HAR) a new organisation has come to save them 

from that distressing situation by raising awareness 

about rape and how to avoid it. 

Create a theme and produce a life size sculpture 

in wood to be displayed at the area community 

headquarters. 

4. You are considered as a successful professional artist 

who is doing well in nearly all fields of art and now 

you want to venture in sculpture as a result of making 

a good analysis of the body especially 'the nude'. Use 

cement and make a sculpture artwork that will give you 

a good blaze of public attention. 

202 203

CHAPTER TWELVE 

Pottery 

Pottery is the art of making earthenware from clay. 

In the words of Beittel (1989, 133), “What is Pottery? Pottery is 

the humblest of man's arts ...” 

Clearly, then, pottery is an acquired skill of making 

earthenware like jars, dishes, plate, cups, pots, vessel or 

bowl as well as adornments or decorations. 

Pottery making necessitates working with hands and other 

equipment, by using techniques such as casting, moulding, 

throwing on a wheel—and then, when a pottery looses all 

its moisture or dries up, it is taken for firing inside a kiln. 

Gray (1975, 622) says, “... pottery breaks down into several 

provisional traditions of which the best known and the 

most wide spread extends from the western shores of Lake 

Kivu, across Burundi and Rwanda north-western Tanzania, 

southern Uganda and western Kenya.” This is probably 

because; in such areas soils are full of clay a raw material 

necessary for making pottery. 

Up to the present time, earthen wares especially pots of 

different sizes can still be found in many Ugandan homes 

of various tribal communities. Pots vary in sizes and shapes 

considering that they are made for very many purposes like 

reserving clean water for drinking. On the other hand, many 

tribal people use clay pots to serve local dishes and for 

drinking local brew (malwa) made out of fried millet. 

Otiso (2006, 56) reminds us that “the Gisu community of 

mountain Elgon (Masaba) region are one of the largest 

and most celebrated source of pots in the country. And the 

community uses local materials to produce pots for sale 

locally and internationally.” This tells us that in Uganda, the 

practice and art of producing pottery is widespread. There 

are so many tribal people who have benefited from pottery 

making. For example the Lou, Ganda and Madi. They all 

make useful decorative pottery for sale and for various 

home uses. 

Undoubtedly, long-established pottery makers are classified 

in a manner conforming to some—adhering traditions of 

people. 

Lugira (1970, 81) offers a rational explanation: “Among the 

Baganda, potters were a distinct class of work men. By using 

a coil method, they made decorated artistic earthenware 

from red and black soils, as well as kaolin into pots. 

They also marked patterns on the earthenware surface 

using roulette, a carved wood, in addition to glazing.” 

From this we can understand that as creative learners 

and beginners of pottery, we can make very many useful 

artworks with simple tools and distinct soil types in all kinds; 

found in places near to our surrounding environments. 

Properties of clay 

As The Department of Earth Sciences has so well stated: 

“Properties of clay minerals include plasticity, shrinkage 

under firing and air drying, fineness of grain, colour after 

firing, hardness, cohesion and capacity of the surface to 

take decoration. On the basis of such qualities, clays are 

variously divided into classes or groups.” 

Distinctly, then, properties of clay are fundamental for our 

study analysis about pottery owing to the fact that they 

serve to point out the different qualities and characteristics 

of clay. For instance, clay can be moulded when wet, shrink 

when exposed to fire or air-drying, it is made up of fine 

grains, it becomes hard and it changes colour after firing. 

But all this depends on clay make ups, mineral composition 

and the size of particles. Others may be distribution and 

presence of organic materials in clay. 

Let us make a brief analysis about properties of clay: 

a. Vitrification of clay is sometimes referred to as 

glass formation—a stage at which clay hardens after 

exposing it to heat by firing. Pottery artworks turn 

solid, with added strength and resistance capable of 

carrying or holding fluids. Giorgini (2001, 25) notes, 

“a clay's maximum firing temperature is known as its 

point of vitrification. When the clay is fired at higher 

temperatures, it will deform and eventually melt down 

to become a hardened puddle ...“ Here we see that 

vitrification is an attribute of clay items like tiles, plates 

and cups, made for household use. 

204 205

. Porosity of clay is determined by conditions and the 

state at which moisture escapes in the course of drying, 

or at the early stages of burning the clay artwork. “Clay 

must be able to absorb water in air and other fluids. It 

must be able to 'breathe.' This quality is necessary in 

order that the clay dry without cracking before firing.” 

(Digolo et. al 1990, 117) Distinctly, then, on greenware 

the conditions and level of drying lean on the amount 

of water absorbed and the provisions in which it can 

escape. If the surface pores are large, water will escape 

rapidly. 

c. Plasticity of clay predominantly refers to the quality 

of easy moulding or shaping without tearing to turn 

or form a useful pottery and other artworks. Muller 

(2007) notes, “Clay’s plasticity is often contingent on its 

moisture content. A good way to check for plasticity 

in clay is to roll a coil in your hand and bend it.” If it 

shows cracks and/or “falls apart then it is not plastic.” 

Nonetheless, plasticity is different from elasticity—in 

which clay can revert back to its muddy wetness. 

d. Shrinkage of clay happens in two stages; when pottery 

is drying and when it is being fired—depending on 

the amount of water it contains. Nevertheless, at every 

stage, clay contains a certain quantity of water, which 

allows particles to combine or get together to form 

one hard substance. Peterson et al. (2003, 24) say, “... 

clay does not dry completely at room temperature. 

Additional evaporation and shrinkage take place 

during firing.” That is to say, when pottery starts to dry, 

water evaporates through small pores or spaces. Hence 

causing shrinkage. 

Materials and tools used in pottery 

In Peterson et al.'s (2002, 26) Tools for Working; “Potters can 

use many tools, or just a few, or none. Most clay artists make 

collections all their lives of various tools—or objects that 

will function as tools-from the hardware store, from their 

attics and garages.” 

Thereby, as creative artists conducting school tasks we 

can as well make pottery artworks by using simple tools or 

object from the surroundings of our school environment. 

Here is a checklist of some tools, materials and equipment 

that may be used to make functional pottery artworks: 

Basic clay tools and their use 

Are used for cleaning unwanted clay off the 

surface of a pottery ware during decoration. 

Brushes can also be locally acquired by tying 

well laid small neaten sisal bundles, on a small 

piece of stick. 

It has got a cylindrical shape. Some of its 

basic tasks include making slabs as well as 

decorating them. A simple rolling pin can be 

locally made from a (cylindrical) smoothened 

straight stick or a sizable (portable) piece of 

wood. 

It is used for washing, cleaning and finishing; 

after throwing or shaping a clay artwork. Yet, 

even when a workspace or studio is saturated 

with water, a sponge can be used to absorb 

some of the dispersed liquids. 

This is a wire tool used for slicing clay during 

wedging and on a wheel after throwing. It 

should be kept clean or be wiped every after 

use. By the way, a smaller—strong string can 

be put to use for this purpose in case there is 

no wire for this particular task. 

These are mainly shaped from hardwood and 

plastics, in different shapes for smoothing, 

shaping and finishing a pottery artwork 

throughout throwing on a wheel. But they 

can also be used on hand built pottery. Ribs 

can be locally made or shaped from thrown 

away pieces of wood. 

This is mainly used to separate junk from 

dry or wet clay. Dry clay can be sieved after 

smashing it and wet clay be sieved after 

turning it into a liquid consistency. Yet again, 

by using a net or a mesh fabric of light weight 

a sieve can be effectively created. Other 

potters use wire mesh sieves. 

206 207 

Brushes 

Rolling pin 

Sponge 

Wire clay 

cutter 

Throwing ribs 

Sieve 

Clay 

Material, equipment and their basic tasks 

It is one of the most essential materials of 

pottery. It is a type of soil with exceptional 

fine grains. It can be dried and baked. Clay 

can also be recycled and moulded again 

when wet. Sometimes red soil from ant-hills 

is used for the same purposes. It is a good 

replacement for beginners, where there is 

scarcity.

Clay storage 

container 

Pottery wheel 

A clean plastic bucket or a strong polythene 

bag. All these and more can be used to store 

clay safely. Shivers (2010, 144) suggests, “a 

wet cloth can be used to cover the stored 

clay to retard the loss of moisture. Water 

can be added to moist clay if it starts to dry. 

Unused clay and finished clay artwork can 

be reclaimed by wrapping it in a damp cloth 

... clay should be stored in a cool, dry place.” 

Nonetheless, you can dig a ditch or trough in 

the ground to store prepared clay for future 

use. 

There are very many types of pottery wheels 

and they are made in different sizes. A 

creative potter can make a home-made 

pottery wheel by using a supporting table 

frame fitted with a wooden wheel-head to 

be used as a turntable device. Also below, it 

should be fitted with a flywheel for kicking. 

Rhodes (2004, 42) informs us that “if a fly 

wheel is too heavy, it will be hard to get it into 

motion by kicking, but if it is too light there 

will be insufficient momentum.” In general, 

kick wheels do not require electricity to 

function. 

We can conclude with Peterson et al.'s (2002, 36) observation 

about “tools for working” that “water is essential in the 

hand building process, but should be used very sparingly.” 

This tells us that, well as water is among the fundamental 

materials of pottery making—excessive use of water might 

cause cracks and breakage of your pottery artwork. 

Clay classifications 

The physical and chemical properties of individual types 

of clay are dependent on its make up or structure. In 

Patwardham's (2005) clay classifications, “residual clay is 

found in the same place as the rock from which it is formed 

... It is purer but less plastic. And, Sedimentary clay is from 

silts, which are washed down or blown from higher regions 

... it is more plastic because it contains organic materials.” 

Undoubtedly, then, residual or primary clays are found 

within the same general location as the parent rock from 

which they originated. And through processes of surface 

weathering, primary clays develop from various types of 

decomposed parent rocks. 

Consequently, residual clay is made up of larger particles 

which make it less plastic than sedimentary clay. 

Sedimentary or secondary clay develops from transported 

soils. Wind and mainly water or any other natural forces 

of weather help to induce the process. Sedimentary clay 

is composed of a greater mix of other organic decaying 

materials from the earth’s surface. Thereby, it is more plastic 

than primary clay. 

Mining clay 

Clay can be found by sampling holes where earth or soil 

has been removed. Such places may include swamps, 

gardens, post caves or underground holes, dug compounds or 

backyards, basements, road cuts, a well, graves and ditches 

et cetera. There is no special technique required by pottery 

artists to dig up or mine clay from any available excavation 

source. 

The most important thing is to identify a clay site. The rest 

can be carried out by using our gardening skills, which may 

only require using basic tools like a hoe, shovel or spade 

and a vessel or container for collecting mined clay a proper 

conveyance or transportation. 

Digging clay is a tedious process, so go with a friend. Or, it 

can be done in a group to share roles accordingly. 

As a clay artist, it is important to visit the clay source that 

you will be able to acquire the adequate knowledge 

about qualities and characteristics of clay. Also, you will 

be acquainted with the organic ways clay transpires in the 

natural world. 

Ultimately, digging your own clay will embrace advantages 

and disadvantages to you as a creative pottery artist. Here is 

our quick analysis: 

Disadvantages of digging your own clay: 

• Preparing clay necessitates countless trials especially 

if a pottery artist is uncertain of its properties. 

• Working with clay will obviously soil or get a 

potter's wear and body messy. 

• And in many cases, clay sites are far from sculpture 

studios. As a consequence, a pottery artist needs 

to plan—have enough time to work and complete 

each comprehensive clay process. 

208 209

• A pottery artist needs enough energy and strength 

to dig and mix clay. It is heavy work. 

• Since clay is used at an appropriate stage of easy 

shaping or moulding, the process of preparation is 

time consuming. 

Advantages 

• As a clay artist, it is not expensive to dig your own 

clay. Yet, it is up to you to form opinions about how 

to expend or make use of the available mined clay. 

• If a pottery artist dug his/her clay, it is easy 

to apportion clay for particular tasks without 

restraints. 

• Digging clay is a plus to a pottery artist to make 

creative decisions and operations of supply and 

demand. 

• And certainly, it is very remarkable for a pottery 

artist to have ready clay mined and kept. Your 

instructors or teachers will consider you able and 

reliable. 

• Finally, mining clay is substantial for a pottery 

artist—to have an outdoor ten-finger and body 

exercise. 

Some pottery and other clay learners detest or despise clay, 

but they get to like it after realising its lack of sophistication 

and practical purposes. “Every pottery” artist “will have 

to evaluate this factor on an individual basis. Mixing your 

own clay offers the intangible benefit of allowing you to 

be completely involved in the pottery endeavour.” (Zamek 

1999, 71) 

Preparing clay for pottery 

The various ways of preparing clay for use in making 

pottery artworks are nearly the same as those used for 

producing sculpture clay artworks. Michael et al (2007, 

140) note, “contemporary ceramic artists work with clay to 

produce sculptures and studio potters make a wide range 

of hand-built and wheel thrown utilitarian items. Taking 

clay from the earth, shaping it, decorating it and firing it; 

are some of the remarkable activities, which come from 

very old and basic professions.” Preparing clay involves a lot 

of undesirable and vigorous actions that may take long for 

learners to accept or regard as being of little worth. 

That is to say, if a clay source is at a swamp, then digging 

clay by themselves shall be their starting point or stage. 

However, this analysis does not present an established order 

for the activities necessary during the process of preparing 

clay for pottery. 

Let us randomly go through some notable stages of 

preparing clay: 

a. Crushing is done by smashing dry clay into reduced 

pieces—very nearly to powder form after allowing it to 

dry. This is the stage at which a creative pottery artist 

can be able to make a quicker preparation process 

since clay will already be reduced to smaller pieces. 

Crushed clay is easy to soak, sieve or sift. 

b. Sieving clay can be done after converting it into a 

creamy watery mixture. Sometimes, dry ground clay is 

put into a sieve; also to remove lumps or large particles 

when it is in a powdery state. Sieving clay is a stage of 

preparation where large grains of unwanted particles 

are separated from a loose matter, guarded from 

impurities by gathering sieved clay into a container 

below a sieve. 

c. Mixing clay can be done by using hands or with 

some other tools such as a blunger. Just like digging 

clay; mixing your own clay is necessary for the reason 

that you will get a chance to learn how to mix clay 

ingredients. For example, grog, a crushed material from 

fired bricks—used for reducing cracking and shrinkage 

of a readymade pottery artwork. Sometimes mixing 

clay involves procedures and actions of kneading and 

wedging. 

d. Draining clay happens when wet clay is daubed 

to dry or loose water. By local methods, a pottery 

artist can haphazardly smudge or smear wet clay 

on a desiccating (porous adsorbent) surface to take 

water or moisture out; sometimes by evaporation. 

As an alternative, draining clay can also be done by 

immersing pieces of plaster of Paris into a container 

carrying the liquefied clay. Dry plaster of Paris drains 

waters out and thus turns liquid clay into a workable 

solid lump of clay. 

210 211

e. Slaking clay is done by putting dry unfired clay in a 

container carrying water to dissolve and turn into a 

semi liquid mixture or slip. It is from here that a pottery 

artist will turn the loosened clay back into a slightly 

wet compact mass for use in the course of throwing 

or hand building. Sometimes slaked clay is used for 

making surface coating and decorations on pottery, 

when it is at a creamy state or consistency also known 

as slip. 

f. Kneading is a method of preparing clay with hands. 

It is carefully done by pressing, folding, stretching 

messaging and squeezing clay to form a uniform 

mixture before throwing or taking it for any other clay 

actions. Kneading also allows clay to attain an even or 

uniform wetness and dryness. After kneading, clay will 

turn it into a plastic mass with a uniform consistency, 

texture and plasticity. 

g. Wedging clay removes unwanted air pockets and it 

helps clay to integrate its particles. The actions and 

process of wedging can be done on a clean surface of 

a table, bench and on the floor. Where by, clay can be 

hit with a stick or it can be wedged by slapping it down 

on a hard surface. Then, cut it to check for remaining 

air pockets. Peterson et al. (2003, 31) assert, “Techniques 

of wedging vary from bread-kneading methods ... to 

cutting on a wire and slapping the pieces together.” 

Nevertheless, wedging clay requires working with small 

quantities of clay for easy lifting—up high above the 

head then down to make a pound in order to remove 

air bubbles. 

In this final analysis we acknowledge that wedging and 

kneading can act together. Rhode (2004, 7) affirms, “Cutting 

and wedging are usually followed by kneading or spiral 

wedging. In kneading, the clay is again formed into a loaf, 

which is then manipulated by hands and especially the 

heels of the hands to make it roll into itself in a form like 

a jelly roll ... The kneaded rolls tends to get longer and 

longer and at a certain point it is upended and the process 

repeated ... The method of kneading does not involve 

picking the clay up off the table ... it requires relatively little 

effort.” Ultimately, ready clay has either got to be properly 

kneaded or wedged for proper workable consistencies. 

Also for the duration of these processes unwanted 

impurities can be removed once a potter discovers them. 

Proper Storage will prevent clay from getting 

contaminated, unforeseen drying and safe from thieves. 

Hence, a storage place must be able to store clay for a very 

long time. It should be kept clean and dry. For example, a 

sizeable plastic bag or a lidded plastic bucket. 

According to Webbo (1996, 60), “select a position in a cool 

place such as the banana plantation or under a tree shade 

... the earth is mostly cool there, hence it can keep clay soft 

and moist.” During storage, check the conditions of clay 

day-to-day to make sure that it still contains the necessary 

moisture content. Other than that to prevent loss of 

moisture, “make a trough in the ground big enough to hold 

the amount of clay at hand. Line the walls as well as the 

floor of the trough with leaves. For example banana leaves. 

Arrange the clay balls properly in the trough. Cover the clay 

balls with a thick layer of leaves then, replace earth and 

leave it until when you need to use the clay.” (Webbo 1996, 

60) Remember, preparing clay is tedious. 

Techniques of hand building 

As Müller (2007, 58) has asserted, “Hand building is a great 

way to get to know the properties of clay ... you will quickly 

become familiar with degrees of plasticity and feel the 

leather-hand clay ... Some people prefer working with hand 

building techniques because they are so many possibilities 

... In fact, many ceramic artists work with hand building or a 

combination of wheel and hand building.” 

As a consequence, learners should be given a chance 

to experiment with each of the available hand building 

techniques. For examples thumb digging, coiling, slab, ball/ 

pallets and scoop building. In spite of that, it takes a while for 

a creative artist to perfect a single specified technique. 

Here is a review of how techniques of hand building can be 

used to make pottery artworks: 

1. Pinch building is a very old method; it is carried out 

with actions of fingers, a thumb and hands inserted 

into solid clay to create a hollow shape. Rogers (1986, 9) 

says, “Pinch building is just to hold a lump of clay in one 

hand and then ... push a hole into it with the fingers or 

thumb of the other hand to form a hollow container, a 

212 213

owl, a cup. In size and shape it will correspond to ...” 

That is to say, pinching clay—moulding and shaping 

it between fingers and thumb is a natural human 

response. As a pottery learner start with a pinch 

building technique that you will be able to discover 

other ways of creating useful clay artworks. 

2. Coil building is a method, which requires gentle ways 

of handling clay by rolling it with both hands forward 

and backwards between bases of your palm, towards 

the fingers. At the appropriate stage of building a 

pottery artwork, pay attention to rolled parts of an 

emerging coil. 

If the parts of clay coils turn into a full roll, shift then 

carefully to the other ends of your palm and then 

continue to roll. Avoid half rolls since the expected coil 

might not happen. In another way, clay coils can be 

rolled on a flat, smooth surface of a table. Although, 

such coils tend to appear dry and cracked. 

In general, using coils to build a pottery artwork 

starts with a sketch. Follow some of the essential 

requirements of a provided task and then roll suitable 

coils. To join each obtained coil; make scores or 

scratches on a single side of a wet clay coil and add slip 

in the scratched areas. Slip works as an adhesive. Hence 

scoring means to create scratches or cut markings on a 

coil surface. Coils have a vast creative potential, owing 

to the fact that they can build, as well as decorate. 

Müller (2007, 67) is more enlightening: “Many primitive 

cultures ... still use coiling to build large storage 

jars or traditional and ceremonial pottery forms.” 

Undoubtedly, then, coiling clay is a very easy way of 

using hands to create pottery artworks. To this extent, 

creative pottery artists must be encouraged to produce 

various useful artworks with this hand building 

technique. 

3. Slab building is a technique used by nearly all pottery 

artists to build clay walls. Clay slabs are easy to make for 

they allow quick pottery constructions. The slab forms a 

wall structure using clay to support a planned shape. 

During slab building, a pottery artist lays flat a clean 

polythene bag—on a table support and by using 

a thumb, wet clay is put in a precise position to be 

proportionally distributed everywhere on a polythene 

bag up to a measurement of thickness and height not 

exceeding 1cm (height-to-thickness). The thickness 

of a clay slab can be regulated by using two straight 

flat-shaped pieces of wood. These should have the 

same ratio of height and thickness expected for a slab. 

Another polythene bag can be spread on top of the 

attained layer of an advancing clay slab. Pick a 

rolling pin and then run it over the attained layer of 

clay; up and down. The method of rolling to make a 

slab is similar to the ways “chapati” is levelled out 

during cooking. 

After acquiring a reasonable thickness of the 

desired clay slab take a sharp tool like a knife 

and precisely cut out shapes that you need. Be 

mindful of the needs mentioned by the task at 

hand. 

Techniques of decorating greenware 

In the words of Hinshaw (2008, 90), “Greenware is a clay 

work that has not been bisque fired.” Thereby, clay can be 

decorated after firing it and even before when it is still 

at a greenware stage. Pottery artists and mainly creative 

artists decorate clay according to some obtainable sources 

of inspiration, function, culture and for some established 

society practices. Nevertheless, all these involve working 

with different tools and materials. 

According to Lugira (1970, 81), “a common method used 

on unfired clay was to mark pottery surfaces with patterns 

using a roulette.” Here we see that decorating pottery 

surfaces can be done with simple tools. 

214 215 

Making a 

clay slab 

Materials: A 

rolling pin, with 

supports of 

narrow straight 

pieces of wood 

between 

wet clay

As an example, a roulette made by twisting cords or knots 

from small strings of a papyrus, or a well-shaped piece of 

stick. All these can be shaped accordingly to decorate clay 

artworks. 

Here is a table explaining some basic techniques of 

decorating greenware: 

Embossing 

Burnishing 

Incising clay 

Stamping 

Inlaying 

Slip trailing 

The surface decorations of an embossed design 

display a (bas or low) relief. Just like the way 

images appear on the surface of a currency 

coin. Embossing can be done by carving or 

moulding. 

It makes greenware appear smooth “by 

polishing of leather-hard clay with a smooth 

tool.” (Müller 2007, 186) This technique can 

produce high quality smooth surfaces by using 

the smooth end of a spoon, 'stone' or a glass on 

the pottery surface to appear like glaze. 

Generates markings on a ceramic artwork 

by using a sharp tool. Michael et al. (2007, 

146) allege, “incising involves scoring clay 

with various objects. The clay must be partly 

dry before incising can be done” or making 

necessary cuts, the incised decorations have to 

be smoothened with a sponge or a soft brush. 

Decorates pottery surfaces by impressing the 

surface with patterns. Peterson et al. (2003, 110) 

say, “since ancient time, pottery artists have 

pressed or rolled into clay objects that leave 

their impressions, when they are removed.” 

Indeed, stamping imprints decorative designs 

only when clay is still wet. 

Decorates clay by using two or more types 

of coloured clay. Pottery artists do inlaying 

by embedding different types of coloured 

clay portions to flush out on the surface of a 

pottery in contrasting colours. The techniques 

of inlaying vary; some creative artists use shells, 

stone and bones. Inlaying can be done after 

firing or before in different ways. 

Uses slip obtained from wet clay to decorate 

pottery. It can make decorative motifs into the 

surface of the pottery. Simple tools like a coneshaped-folded 

paper or a medical syringe can 

be contrived for making decorative slip trials 

of very fine lines, dots or any other desired 

patterns. Sometimes slip trails are enhanced by 

adding coloured powder paints into slip mixes 

to bring on coloured slip trails. 

216 217 

Excising/ 

relief 

carving 

Glazing 

A pottery surface can be decorated by using 

a sharp stick to create carvings and deep 

cuts. The problem with decorating pottery by 

excising is that; the thickness and depths of clay 

walls vary. Hence during carving, have a plan in 

mind before you begin. 

According to Hinshaw (2008, 86, 90), “glaze 

is liquid glass that melts and bounds clay 

through the heat of the kiln.” It can be used 

to decorate pottery by dipping, pouring or 

painting a glaze mix on the surface of pottery 

artworks. “Glazes are grouped into low-fire or 

high fires depending on the chemical makeup 

... Low-fire glazes tend to have brighter colours; 

high-fire ... more tones. Low-fire glazes are most 

appropriate for elementary grades.” Ideally, 

before glazing consult a skilled person for 

necessary assistance. 

Throwing clay on a wheel 

In the words of Rhodes (2004, 29), “the invention of 

throwing speeded up the production of pottery and made 

possible light, highly symmetrical” functional earthenware. 

In the manner now being indicated, pottery is meant to 

be produced in lightweight. This practicability is done by 

throwing “on the wheel ... to get a hollow clay shape, ready 

to be finished or to be combined or cut up and added to 

something else ... it is the fastest method only when the 

potter is skilful and has total command of the wheel. This 

accomplishment can take ten years to acquire, although 

some people have a natural skill that allows them to 

develop control faster” (Peterson et al. 2003, 67) 

Apart from that, a clay throw must get to the centre of a 

wheel to avoid—strenuous efforts of positioning it. Wrong 

centering of clay may cause the wheel to run in a sluggish 

way. 

After placing clay in a proper position, start to roll the 

wheel and keep it running at a low speed. With hands wet, 

carefully start touching the wet clay using some strengths 

and energy of your whole body. 

Carry on and then press the clay slightly as the wheel keeps 

rolling. The shape of an anticipated pottery design/artwork 

will begin to develop. Remember to look at your sketch. 

Then, put the right hand down in a short straight motion.

Along with the left hand and add some limited pressure to 

retain the clay position. 

As the wheel continues to run, hold and manoeuvre clay 

with both hands to support the evolving pottery. 

Start to press clay on both sides and force it upwards to 

form a clay wall. This is a stage at which a pottery ware will 

also generate a mouth shape. 

Touch the mouth carefully and then, squeeze the advancing 

walls up by using your thumbs, as well as the next finger. 

At about this moment, increase the speed of a wheel by 

making more kicks to quickly obtain a size, which may be 

needed. Peterson (2003, 432) explains, “Potters ... prefer 

kick wheels to electronically driven ones, for reasons of 

sensitivity and empathy.” Kick wheels are cheap, they have 

less noise and they are more durable. 

Regardless of how, when a proposed pottery artwork is 

ready, remove it from the wheel carefully. Remember, a 

small knock can result into a bad fall. Thus, be care full. 

Then, keep the wet pottery aside on a safe ground without 

covering it—for some time, to allow moisture to evaporate 

and to be ready for an upcoming phase such as adding 

decorations on its surface. When wetness subsides, wrap it 

up in a clean polythene bag and keep it inside a cupboard 

or a storage shelves. 

Generally, the methods of making pottery differ. Most of the 

activities and processes are determined by tasks provided. 

Exercise 

1. Once a year the community and your school have 

celebrated a very important solidarity ritual. Design 

and produce a decorative pottery artwork for the event. 

Use any two hand building techniques you know. 

The function of the final pottery artwork should be 

self-evident. 

2. A friend of yours has been bothered with finding a 

suitable gift for a newly married sister. And you know 

how to make pots, cups and dishes using clay. 

Now you have been trusted to design a well decorated 

gift set containing 2 medium-sized plates, 1 bowl and 1 

cup for that purpose. By using a pottery wheel and one 

technique of decoration produce the earthenware. The 

final products must be fired. 

3. Candles and kerosene lamps (tadooba) are potential 

fire hazards in homes and boarding schools. Design a 

decorative candle holder for safe burning of candles 

and to avoid other fire accidents. Use the slab building 

method to execute the task. 

218 219

CHAPTER THIRTEEN 

Photography 

Photography is the art and practice of taking still or moving 

pictures using a camera. 

Artists who sketch or draw and all those who make 

illustrations as well as painting artworks do not 

underestimate the importance of photographs; they all 

wander in related topics and themes in various indisputable 

ways. That is to say, photographic images taken with a 

camera inspire artists particularly those dealing with real life 

artistic themes. 

Galer (2004, 8) offers a rational explanation: “There can be 

no guarantee that anyone will view and read an image 

you have created the way you would like them to. Images 

are full of ambiguity and uncertainty.” Here we see that 

creative artists have to take measures of working through 

uncertainty and ambiguity in producing photographic 

artworks. Thereby, photography and art operate without 

exact restraints—restriction or deprivation of experimental 

liberty. 

A creative photographer will discover a multitude of 

interesting ideas and themes from art—borrow them to 

perform skills needed to achieve the set learning outcomes 

listed below: 

• Understanding the effects of light on images 

• Understanding the influence of colours and 

perspective on images. 

• The basic characteristics of form and mass 

• Understanding how to compose in photography 

• Using elements and principles of design in 

photography 

As an extra factor about photography and art, Caravagio is 

one of the many famous painters who used optical devices 

like camera obscure, lenses and curved mirrors to produce 

real life paintings that are nearly similar to photographs. 

Look out for his artwork titled The incredulity of Saint 

Thomas. Likewise, Norman Rockwell painted the Home 

coming marine and very many illustrations by using 

photographs. 

Seay (2010) notes, “Rockwell's reliance on photographs 

strongly recalls ... Caravagio, who left behind a bunch of 

paintings but without a single sketch.” 

Certainly, it is not a surprise to discover that even today 

several creative artists rely on photography to make 

powerful artworks or drawings. Nonetheless, modern 

images in photography reveal varying changes. 

For instance, back then “... approach was not so much about 

information as about effect, mood and technique.” Galer 

(2004, 89) laments. 

Besides at the present time a creative photography artist 

has got the challenges of moving with modernity and to 

find ways of discovering new approaches to capturing 

broad based images. 

In spite of that, photography keeps going with new 

advancements of technology—to improve methods, 

techniques and processes of production and control. This 

has also made learning relatively easy and to use advanced 

features of a camera. 

It is fortunate that currently every single person using a 

mobile phone is likely to possess a digital camera in some 

way. He/she can capture moving or still images. The same 

gadget can have a recorded image edited, or printed 

straightaway using a short range wireless connection to the 

printer. 

Uses of photography 

In today’s creative world, photography has been combined 

with art and other learning expeditions. 

Finn (1994) says, “I have discovered more everyday about 

how the camera can teach me to look with a penetrating 

eye at everything that comes into my field of vision.” 

Clearly, then: 

• Photographs describe or cause our eyes to draw 

attention to new products, events and services 

found in public media such as newspapers, movies, 

magazines, billboards et cetera. 

• A photograph assists obligatory users to make 

formal inquiries; to discover or examine facts of 

unknown allegations as well as documenting past 

invents. 

220 221

• Photography can be used to depict our real-life in 

pictures and moving images. 

• Artists, politicians and scientists use photography 

to represent and also explain their ideologies, 

beliefs, ideals, principles, ethics, morals, faith and 

teaching as well as to civic matters like elections. 

• It is also important for story telling—mainly in 

children books and newspapers. On the other 

hand, many journalists use photographs to make 

or write news. 

• Photography helps us to remember important 

things or days of our life. For example school life, 

fun days and wedding days. 

• It has a greater possibility of helping us to learn 

about new places, sites and areas far away from 

our surroundings by using descriptive pictures of 

scenery or landscapes. 

• Other photographers go extra miles to take real life 

pictures that educate us about the life of animals, 

birds and plants in the wilderness. 

• Photography assist artists to sketch beyond what 

eyes may not be able to see. 

• And by exchanging photographs, we can easily 

make mutual attachments with friends. 

Photography motifs 

When photography artists mention motifs they are referring 

to learning aspects from themes like landscapes, portraits 

and the nude et cetera. 

Although nude themes are common in photography 

and art, some of their intended aims and objectives are 

incompatible with minority learners below minimum age. 

“In every era, in every age, portrayals of nudity risk official 

condemnation.” (Rasmussen & Amey 1997, 569) 

Nonetheless, there are very many new and outstanding 

photography themes or motifs from which learners can 

find inspirational ideas to make better their acquired 

photography skills. According to Rosenblum (1997, 530) “... all 

photographers make decisions concerning the selection of 

a motif.” 

Here are some basic selections of photography motifs: 

• Human beings (portraits, group pictures, human 

forms, the body or the nude, fashion and style) 

• Still-life and nature (arrangements of contrasting 

objects, plant life in distinct shapes, colours, textures) 

• Landscape (weather, sky, nature, shadows, light, 

scenery, sight-seeing) 

• Architecture (perspective and angles, outdoors) 

• Indoor interior (architectural details, fittings, 

furniture) 

• Automobile (cars designs, interiors and exteriors) 

Elements and principles of design 

in photography 

As a creative photography artist it is important to take 

elements and principles of design into account considering 

that composing a photograph will appropriately fit art and 

design activities. Leland (2006, 50) looks at “photographers 

as designers, a good photographer is a designer who 

understands the elements and principles of design and 

uses skills and experience to bring them together to make 

an expressive picture.” As a result of that, it is necessary for 

creative artists to have some clear knowledge of how to 

make the most from them. 

Here is some of what we can learn about using elements 

and principles of design in photography: 

Elements of design 

Natural light is good for taking photos. 

Keeping in mind that, it is challenging to take 

photographs of African skin. Zucker (2010) offers 

a rational opinion: “When photographing a 

black person ... stand against light or a bright 

background” because “a resulting image might 

create too much contrast. One has to know how 

to use the light.” 

In photography texture can be used to put 

forward depth and character. Rosenblum (1997, 

12) offers a rational explanation: “Photographic 

prints sometimes display significant difference 

and texture, as a result of using different process 

and printing on different papers.” In spite of that, 

texture in photography can be generated by 

taking close up pictures. 

222 223 

Light 

Texture

Colour 

Lines 

Space 

Contrast 

Unity 

Emphasis 

The main purpose of colour is to enrich 

appearances and moods. Sometimes artist use 

colour to find their way into photography and 

to a lager extent, colour is linked to light in 

photography. 

From an already taken photograph, lines may be 

vertical, diagonal, horizontal, zigzag et cetera. 

A photograph with manifestations of lines will 

generate aesthetic sequential arrangements 

of active lines—these generally appeal to 

landscape photographs. Such photographs 

use line and other attributes of perspectives to 

divide the horizon in parts. Sometimes they use 

repetitions. 

Allows a subject in a photograph to appear 

balanced within unoccupied areas. Shepherd 

(2001, 28) used a photographic frame of a 

swan to explain space. He noted that, as “the 

mind perceives balance ... when the subject 

occupies one-third of the frame and empty 

space fills two-thirds of the frame.” This makes 

the smaller occupied space appear balanced in a 

composition as a result of the “larger unoccupied 

space.” As a creative photographer, try to make 

full use of both spaces. 

Principles of design 

The special effects of colour contrasts can be 

achieved by capturing distinctive areas of a 

photograph with high against low tones. Some 

photographers achieve this by taking black and 

white pictures. 

This is a principle of design used to display visual 

harmony. Warren (2002, 67) explains, “unity in a 

photography ... as coherence of visual elements, 

the feeling that they belong together.” That 

is to say, unity with the assistance of colour 

gives chance to orderly variety, harmony and 

emphasis in a picture. 

Emphasis is mostly used to determine the 

centre of interest. Galer (2002; 90) believes, 

“using emphasis should lie in observing or 

seeing and not the later manipulation in order 

to communicate the artist's feelings.” Certainly, 

to realise emphasis, a photographer has got to 

make use of exposure effects and lighting— 

in specified areas of a photograph. Sometimes 

emphasis is attained by making under or 

overexposure. 

224 225 

Balance 

Perspective 

Pattern and 

repetition 

Framing 

According to Sheppard (2008, 60), “balance 

is a basic part of a photograph.” It helps the 

photographer make amends to the different 

colours created by light (natural/artificial). Good 

artistic photographs depend on balance—by 

using dark shadows and light. 

It is quick to find perspective in landscape 

photographs. Galer (2004, 23) says, “using any 

perspective present in the image and the scale 

of known objects we view the image as if it exists 

in layers at differing distances.” Perspective is not 

for a drastic look of an image alone. It also helps 

artist to appreciate sizes of figures. 

Shepherd (2001, 32) says that “in photography, 

repetition simply means repeated images.” He 

used an interesting example of “two mirrors 

placed adjacent to one another at 45° angles, the 

image in a mirror will repeat itself in an infinite 

number.” In other words, patterns and repetition 

can also be done by taking a picture of “fence 

posts running along an open field.” 

In photography framing can be used for different 

purposes. For example; to create a balanced 

space, display emphasis and to relate images 

to other elements. Warren's (2002, 151) offers a 

rational explanation: “Selecting what to appear 

in a photograph by camera position or lens 

choice is called framing ... Being aware of these 

effects can help you to make more effective 

photographs.” 

As a photography artist, go ahead and make further 

investigations about elements and principles of design 

necessary for taking pleasant pictures in a professional way. 

Categories of photographs 

Photography consists of numerous categories. According 

to Barrett (1990, 85) photography categories include: 

“descriptive, explanatory, interpretative, ethically evaluative 

and theoretical photographs.” 

Here is how Barrett (1990, 85) explains each category: 

Aesthetically 

evaluative 

photographs 

Photographs of this kind are usually about 

themes of beautiful things. For example, 

nudes, landscapes and still life. 

They are carefully lit, posed for maximum 

aesthetic effect, faceless and nameless. 

Sometimes they are only torso, male and 

female studies of human forms.

Explanatory 

photographs 

Descriptive 

photographs 

Interpretative 

photographs 

Theoretical 

photographs 

They indicate time and a place. To the extent 

that, a photograph taken can be dated by 

visual evidence and they are commonly used 

in books, magazine and newspapers. 

Include images like; identity photographs, 

medical X-rays, surveillance and reproductions 

of artworks et cetera. Descriptive 

photographers focus on subject matter and 

they are pain staking to produce, or to get up 

to a required standard of quality. 

These explain how things are but they do 

not attempt scientific accuracy nor are they 

accountable to scientific testing procedures. 

Interpretative photographers’ stage people 

in front of a lens, or they intervene in real life 

situations by directing participants. 

They reflect on issues about art and 

art making, about politics of art, about 

modes of photo representations and other 

theoretical issues about photographing and 

photography. 

They are photographs about films, photographs 

about photographs, art about art. 

As a creative photography artist, you will find varying 

categories listed down by different photographers for their 

popular photography subjects and unlimited aims. Hickman 

(2005, 61) affirms, “There is a potentially illuminating 

correspondence here with subjects that also have tactic 

presence within art and design community of interest and 

which are likewise unrecognised as prime disciplines— 

photography and media studies. Here it is acknowledged 

that while each significantly enhances the other, each may 

also stand alone.” 

A pinhole camera (obscura) 

This is a simple device, which can be made out of a tin or a 

box to record images directly onto a photographic paper. 

It consists of a small hole on one side used as an aperture 

and no lens. “The principle of the camera obscura is in fact 

the same as that of the photographic camera. The only 

difference is that, images of a photographic camera are 

recorded by a light sensitive chemical rather than the draft 

man hand.” (Ashwin 1982, 248) 

Clearly, then, a pinhole camera can be constructed in very 

many ways with various simple tools, equipment and 

materials in different shapes, sizes, with several holes, films 

and other light sensitive materials. 

Some creative photography artists construct pin hole 

cameras using a window—inside their own bed rooms. Or if 

you have a camera, remove and replace the lens by gluing a 

paper, then pierce a small hole on the paper. 

How to make a simple pinhole camera 

Find an empty box, or a clean can (soda tin). Whatever may 

be selected tin or box must be straight with all its sides 

aligned uniformly without a curve or bend. 

Paint inside the obtained box or tin with a thick layers of 

black acrylic paint or a permanent black marker, to prevent 

light from flaring. Take it away from access to light and close 

up all its corners to keep it safe. 

Then, cut a square hole (approximately 1.5cm x 1.5cm) on its 

front part. And then, use a foil paper obtained from a used 

cigarette packet to cover the hole by fixing it well on the 

surface of a box using an adhesive tape. 

By using a sharp small pin make a tiny hole on the foil. And 

then, use a pen to smoothen down edges of an attained 

hole. The smaller the hole the sharper the picture—you 

need to shape or create a cover that will be used as a lid 

to shield the hole for the time of transferring the camera 

back and from a darkroom. The cover paper should be thick 

enough for that purpose. 

Next, carry the box inside a darkroom. In essence, the room 

must be very dark. 

More or less, black and white papers are responsive to 

blue and green light. As a consequence, red light (amber 

coloured light) is safe to use in a darkroom to avoid 

exposing a photo paper. 

Attach the photo paper (a pinhole camera uses black and 

white photographic enlarging paper) inside the box with an 

adhesive on one side opposite a pinhole. The photo paper 

shall work as a film. Cover it so tightly. 

After that, take the constructed pinhole camera out. Fasten 

and position it in a safe place—of no inference, but with full 

access to light. Avoid shaking it during relocation. 

If the installation stage is complete, open the small lid 

cover for light to enter through the small hole (on a pinhole 

camera a hole acts as a lens). 

226 227

Light entering through a pin hole is what will allow images 

to copy on the photo paper sealed inside. 

If the light outside is very bright. Then, it may take less than 

4-6 minutes for an image to develop on a photo paper. 

Assuming that everything is done and you want to take 

your pinhole camera back in the dark room. Close and press 

the shatter flap paper of a hole and make sure you do not 

shake the camera. 

Then remove and carefully carry the pinhole camera back 

to the darkroom—to develop the photo paper into a 

photograph. Other less inquisitive photographers open 

their pinhole cameras after many months or even years. For 

instance, by using a large format pinhole camera, Michael 

Wesely a German photography artist captured light and 

images of objects for up to 3 years. 

As we make our final conclusion about this process, we have 

to understand that “the mess accompanying all art activities 

will be in exact ratio to one's failure to think a head.” 

(Jenkins 1980, 151) That is to say, before a photographer 

attempts to make an actual pinhole camera. It is important 

to make experiments. 

Film and digital 

Both film and digital can produce excellent photographs. 

The most outstanding problem is high indirect costs for 

digital as compared to film. For instance, digital consumes 

much energy from rechargeable or replaceable batteries 

and it requires up to date software as well as hardware to 

compete with prevailing photography versions used by 

computers and other necessary equipment. 

Yet, film photography is all about converting existing 

resources to develop photographs. Nevertheless, the 

process of producing a film photograph consumes more 

time than a digital camera; the images are produced 

electronically, while the film camera process involves 

developing films and printing images. 

In spite of that, digital and film cameras vary. They exist in 

different models, sizes and brands. 

Benefits of using a digital camera 

Digital cameras are easy to use because they have better 

electronic mechanisms, which can allow users to have 

instant adjustments before or after the picture is taken. 

Nevertheless, nearly all digital cameras have different 

graphic applications; most of them serve almost identical 

purposes. 

Here are some of the few rewarding aspects of using a 

digital camera: 

• A digital camera can instantly show images 

taken on its display screen, as soon as images are 

converted and recorded. 

• A digital camera can store thousands of high 

resolution images on a distinct memory device. 

• It can as well record videos with sound. 

• Unwanted images on a digital camera may be 

immediately deleted for more storage space. 

• Digital cameras can crop pictures and they can 

perfectly perform other basic image editing needs. 

• Photographs needed can be printed instantly. 

• At present digital cameras are easier to own 

because they are available on ordinary mobile 

phones. 

As a result of that, digital cameras enable photographers to 

obtain nearly all elegant and aesthetic effects within one 

instant shoot of a picture. 

On the other hand, digital photographs are an easy 

target for making false manipulations—easily performed 

by a desktop computer loaded with image editing 

software or applications. And also, chances are high that 

a photographer will miss important shots since digital 

cameras rely on rechargeable batteries or they are mainly 

electronic. A picture cannot be taken easily on low batteries. 

Benefits of using a film camera 

Film cameras were considered as the most advanced before 

digital cameras became familiar to many photographers. 

Such cameras used a semi-automatic moving mirror system 

(through a view finder) for the photographer to see what a 

film will capture. 

And in principle, photographs taken by a film camera had to 

be developed or scanned before viewing them. 

Currently, film cameras have very few benefits to a 

present-day user. Hence we shall combine benefits and draw 

backs to analyse and discuss further about film cameras. 

228 229

Here is how: 

• Film cameras were highly desired in the past for 

taking black and white photos with precession. 

• A film camera is a good choice for point-and-shoot 

photographs. The photographer is not worried 

about low battery or batteries. 

• It is reasonably cheaper to produce good quality 

images at a low cost. 

• Most film cameras are bigger and heavier. 

• A photographer has got to be with a big shelf 

to make archives for collecting and also store 

authentic photos. 

• Also, film cameras use films that consume space. 

Yet, they support a smaller number of pictures. 

• It is as well expensive and inconveniencing to rely 

on buying a film for the camera whenever pictures 

have to be taken. 

• The processes of developing film photos are more 

hectic. For instance, a photographer is impelled to 

a darkroom or a laboratory for developing a film. 

This can waste a lot of beneficial time. 

Exercise 

In all tasks provided, learners are expected to choose one 

task only. Each project should be supported with adequate 

research and background work where possible. 

Note; pictures taken by mobile phones are allowed. 

1. Take an explanatory photograph of a landscape 

showing one element of design you know. It must be 

clear and noticeable. 

2. Find a convenient spot for taking at least two 

interpretative photographs of an indoor staged scene 

showing worried and helpless parents watching their 

sick child lying down on a mat suffering from Cholera. 

On one side of the patient, put a well-lit candle or 

tadooba (kerosene lamp). Or, it can be held by one of 

the attendants with one hand. The photograph must 

display enough light only in the necessary parts such as 

the foreground and less light in the background. 

3. Find a picture/photograph from newspapers showing 

two or more elements and principles of design. List 

them down. Then go and take a photograph that 

manifests the same elements and principles of design. 

4. Once upon a time, you were the best in an 

award-winning school competition. Pose and ask a 

friend to take your portrait picture showing a sudden 

feeling of excitement. The photograph taken must be 

expressive and sincere. 

230 231

CHAPTER FOURTEEN 

Ultimately, reading a set task in a proper way—using logical 

reasoning enables a candidate to translate and interpret 

This section contains tasks for revision. They are intended to 

meanings of information into expected answers. 

benefit learners, trainees, apprentices and undergraduates 

Ask the invigilator to provide you with some materials 

who find challenges in Paper 5, Craft A (Graphic design). 

(sheets of papers or a canvas) needed for the task you have 

Most importantly, it provides assistance to learners of art 

selected or, which you are about to attempt. 

and design preparing for their final year examinations as 

For the most part, throughout art and design exams a 

well as student teachers doing their first training in teaching 

candidate is expected to be creative, attentive, innovative 

art. 

patient and neat. 

Equally, users shall be acquainted with some feasible series 

When you are told to start, avoid wasting time by 

of steps necessary to prepare for art and design exams. 

attempting unfamiliar tasks or questions, materials or 

A candidate in the examination room 

Entering the examination room starts with checking 

candidates to avoid acts of dishonestly such as copying. So 

do not enter with any unnecessary material. 

In other words, the invigilator will check each candidate to 

prove that the absolute person is the one supposed to sit 

for the exam. 

When you get inside, concentrate and be focused. That 

is to say, avoid actions that will cause interruptions such 

as unfinished conversations or walking around to borrow 

materials you did not carry beforehand. 

Inside the examination room, candidates will obtain seats 

and they will be provided with some few—necessary tools 

and materials. However, it is for your own good to take what 

equipment. Choose tasks you have often encountered in 

your daily (class room) practices. 

And as a result of that, not all materials and tools made 

available during examination are extremely necessary. Thus 

you will not earn a single extra mark by using each one of 

them. 

Start sketching within the exact dimensions or size stated 

by a set task you have chosen to attempt (this is meant for 

paper 5, Art/craft A). Sketching within dimensions given 

helps a candidate to finish quickly during the first stage 

of working and in every stage of the second session—by 

tracing—the sketch shall be transferred to another (final) 

paper. Tracing brings very many advantages to a candidate. 

Let us make a brief analysis of the benefit: 

you think shall be necessary because not a great variety 

• It is easy to properly balance your layout on the 

of materials and tools are made available for exams by 

final paper. 

individual schools. 

• You will finally obtain a clean work. 

Sit in a comfortable place. By minimum standards a 

candidate should be able to work without restriction or 

interference—able to see all feasible details caused to be 

necessary by a task set (or specimen in nature and/or still 

• Tracing redirects most of the mistakes to a 

sketch-paper alone. 

• It reduces the use of an eraser or rubber. 

life). For example, shadows and direction (source) of light, 

• It provides a clear proof of work that the project 

foreground, middle ground and background. 

or design created was done by you. Hence, 

232 

Make your tools reachable or accessible. Then, read all 

instructions and make sure that you understand each 

question (task) carefully. Note down what might be needed 

by the task you have chosen to tackle and make sure that 

you keep on the same level with the demands specified by 

the task you plan to attempt. Do not take a single piece of 

information required for granted. Also, remember to write 

your name clearly as well as your index number. 

the examiner shall be sure to award you with 

boundless scores or grades. 

In accordance with the Uganda Advanced Certificate of 

Education, Regulations and Syllabuses, 2009 – 2012 (Uganda 

National Examinations Board, 2008, 226). “Further evidence 

of study in the form of notebooks or folders containing 

working drawings or photographs and showing sources of 

ideas, all of which must be entirely related to a craft offered, 

must also be submitted. 

233

Crafts other than those detailed above cannot be accepted.” 

Indeed, a sketch provides evidence of work put forward as 

well as the process. It can also stand in for the final design 

even when the artwork is not fully complete. That is to say, 

do not take the planning session for granted. 

When the exam ends, wait for final instructions from the 

invigilator. Where possible, use this time to check if you 

have done what is expected of you. 

In case there is a mistake. Do not panic. It is safe to ignore 

that omission or misinterpretation than wasting time trying 

to rectify what may not be achievable. Endeavour to correct 

only that—viable mistake. In general, spellings of your 

name and index number are the most important. 

Assuming that the process of working to finish the exam 

or practical test took more (than two) papers attach all—of 

them together with a staple wire or thread and hand them 

in to the supervisor or invigilator in a pile. 

In conclusion, remember to always clean up and organise 

the space or place where your work has been done. Return 

back all the furniture and leave the place in proper order. 

This is a precaution for any organised artist. 

Tasks for revision 

In this subsection, various graphic designs have been sorted 

out into categories using a table for learners to locate them 

without difficulty and only one question is expected to be 

answered. Materials are restricted to flat paper, ink and/or 

colours. 

In situations where calligraphy has to be used, learners must 

be aware of the following (Uganda Advanced Certificate of 

Education, Regulations and Syllabuses, 2009 – 2012, pg 225): 

• Calligraphy art should be written with a pen or a 

brush made for writing lettering. 

• Smudged work leads to loss of marks 

• Fluent and direct use of artistic language is an 

added advantage. 

• Lettering, spacing, legibility and composition. 

• Planning (sketching), craftsmanship, 

understanding colour harmony and colour 

balances. 

All this and more will be used in a random miscellany to 

achieve a very attractive design. 

Here is a table display showing other basic visual/ 

identification symbols in their exclusive categories: 

Category one Category two 

Badges Book covers 

Trademark Book jackets 

Stamps Book fronts 

Emblem Labels 

Monogram CD and cassette slips 

Logo T-shirt 

Category three Category four 

Poster Flag 

Card Package papers 

Sticker Calendar 

Wrapping paper Banner 

Notice sign Bill board 

Signpost Certificates 

In some measures, the four categories listed by the table 

provide a range of graphic design tasks in addition to 

the activities typical of day-today life. You are expected 

to answer one question and state the category number in 

which it belongs: 

Category one 

1. At your school there is a readers' group known as 

Book readers club. In an area, 15cm by 10cm design 

a trademark that will be used on their hand written 

publications. Include the following text “Be like us.” Use 

not more than three colours. 

2. The art and crafts youth project in your community 

needs a badge for the purpose of encouraging selfemployment. 

The final size of the badge shall be 10cm 

by 15cm. Use black and white together with one other 

extra colour of your choice. 

3. The Uganda National Agricultural Advisory Services 

(NAADS) has discovered grasshoppers and white 

ants are a favorite snack for tourist consumption. 

In an area of 10cm x 15cm, design a postage stamp 

commemorating next year’s World food day. State your 

own slogan. 

234 235

4. Design a monogram from the name of your school. Size 

12cm × 30cm. Use one dominant colour from the school 

uniform. 

5. Design an emblem showing three traditional musical 

instruments for a popular music group at your school 

known as 'Ekimbewo Kyange.' Produce the final design 

in black and white. Size: 20cm × 20cm. 

6. The National Environment Management Authority 

(NEMA) wishes to adopt new T-shirts for partner clubs 

in schools. They will display a new logo in front and a 

new motto “our Wetland our Life” at the back as a way of 

disclosing the importance of wetlands to the Ugandan 

public. Make a plan of a finished design and use only 

three colours. Size: 25cm by 35cm. 

Category two 

1. At your home village, women have formed a 

co-operative society to show how they are now 

liberated and they have written a book about 

progressive women. Design a cover for the book. Size: 

22cm by 16cm, spine 2.5cm. Use three colours only. 

2. Mubu publishers limited will publish a new book 

entitled “The calligraphy tails” by Odo Mango. The size 

of the book is 25cm long, 15cm wide; spine 4cm and 

flap width 7cm design a book jacket. Use a computer to 

execute the final design. 

3. In an area of 25cm × 30cm design a front cover of 

a book titled Art and Culture in Africa. By Martin 

publishers Ltd. Use not more than three colours. 

4. Design a label to be printed on ½ litre bottles of packed 

boiled water. Include the word QUENCH in the design 

and use only two colours. Size: 10cm × 15cm 

5. The science club at your school is hosting a seminar to 

fight drug theft from hospitals and community health 

centres. You are required to design a T-shirt or a notice 

sign for member participants. Include a slogan “No 

wealth-for-all without health-for-all.” Use three colours. 

6. Design a (CD) compact disc case cover for teen-age 

type of folk music titled “kaneemu.” Work within a space 

of 20cm by 20cm. Produce the sketch and use the 

computer to draw-up the final design. 

Category three 

1. In a space of 30cm × 45cm, design a poster warning the 

public about the dangers, effects and causes of school 

fires. The word “fire extinguishers” must appear with 

striking colours. Use only two colours. 

2. The old boys and girls of Nandere academy will hold a 

Christmas party on 23 rd December this year at the home 

of Mr. Muliro in Kalule village. The party will begin at 

4:00 p.m. In a size chosen by you, design a card inviting 

guests to this party. 

Include the following sentences. 

You are invited to attend the old boys' and girls' party. 

We can't wait to hear whether you have been naughty or 

nice. 

Soft drinks and dinner will be served by your hosts. 

3. The National Health Care Authority has mounted a 

campaign against consuming crude waragi, Lira Lira. 

Design a sticker to caution the public about excessive 

drinking and drug abuse. Size: 20cm by 25cm. Use two 

colours only. 

4. A new association for babies’ well-being “Sweet-Mama 

Ltd” wishes to foster breast feeding to young mothers. 

As a designer create a decorated maternity package 

box or a wrapping paper. Include a pattern showing a 

special awareness message. 

5. The tribal chiefs of your home village have formed an 

association to fight against ritual killing of humans. 

Design a notice sign measuring 20cm × 35cm for the 

association. Their motto is “cease child sacrifices.” 

6. Design a signpost for a bad crossroad at your school 

warning drivers to slow down and to drive carefully. It 

should be brief and very clear. Size 25cm × 40cm. Use 

only two colours. 

Category four 

1. The subject matter usually influences the choice of 

style and weight of lettering to be used within layouts. 

Baring this in mind, design a banner announcing a 

charity football club THE VAGABONDS helping to 

promote trust by encouraging the community to 

collect aid for assisting homeless children. The size of 

the final design is up to you. Use three colours only. 

236 237

2. In an area of 25cm by 30cm, design a packaging paper 

for carrying wedding presents. Include an illustration 

and the following words; “Now join hands and with your 

hands your heart.” Use only three colours. 

3. Doctors have discovered that everyone at your school 

is malnourished because of lack of proper nutrition 

caused by not having enough to eat and not eating 

enough of the right food. As a way of sensitising 

students, parent and teachers, a food factory Maito 

Foods and Beverages has commissioned you to design 

a children's memorial flag for a public awareness 

campaign. Use not more than three colours. Size: 30cm 

× 45cm. 

4. The National Tourism Authority needs a billboard to be 

displayed on a major entry road to caution the public 

about dangers of killing and selling extinct wild life. 

Include this statement “... the poacher made me do it” 

as a new slogan. Actual size is 2 metres (width) and 5 

metres (height). Adjust the design to a suitable scale of 

your own choice and use only three colours. 

5. The crested crane academy needs a certificate, which 

will be awarded to outstanding students who shall 

excel in various academic and extra-curricular activities. 

Indicate the national emblem on one side of the 

certificate and the following text: 

……… has meritoriously won this award 

for his/her outstanding contribution as a ………. 

The certificate will be signed by a discipline master and 

the headmaster. Size: 35cm × 22cm 

6. The wildlife club at your school needs a calendar for 

the New Year to educate the general public about 

protecting wild life and planting trees. Make a design 

for the first month. Indicate day 15 as a commemoration 

date and use not more than three colours. 

Size: 25cm × 30cm. 

How to make art and design assessments 

Only necessary advice and information has been provided 

here—aiming at helping teachers and learners to obtain 

feasible knowledge and possible ways of how to assess a 

finished art and design exercises. 

According to Webbo (2006, 73), “The teacher is required to 

assess the pupil's work to determine whether or not that 

pupil is making progress in learning.” 

A great deal of essential facts necessary for guiding course 

evaluations have been adopted from various outstanding 

Ugandan books of a kind like; the Secondary Education 

Syllabus for Art and Design, 2002 (Volume Four). The book 

provides learning expectations, aims and objectives that are 

often not well stated during the lesson. In particular: 

• Mastering the skill of craftsmanship and 

observation. 

• Understanding the procedures applicable for 

executing a design. 

• Developing ability to transmit a message 

effectively and economically. 

• Understand and translate a message successfully 

in visual form from a set problem. 

• Helping a candidate in mastering skills of 

craftsmanship relevant to a resented task. 

• Enabling candidates to make use of local and 

readily available resources in art and design, et 

cetera. 

As a result of that, teachers and mostly student teachers can 

now effortlessly familiarise with a wide range of guiding 

instructions on how to form evaluation opinions concerning 

art and design by using the Secondary Education Syllabus of 

Kenya (2002) in which “suggested methods of assessment” 

were made available. For your convenience, here is table 

indicating the common method of assessment used in 

schools: 

Continuous 

assessment 

- Oral and written 

tests/exams 

- Objective 

observation of 

finished work and 

work in progress. 

Final assessment & 

evaluation 

Written tests or exams 

238 239 

a) Theory 

b) Practical 

- Objective observation 

of finished work

A marking guide 

A marking guide leads the teacher to a genuine evaluation 

process. In art and design it differs many times. For the 

reason that, the learning objectives keep changing. 

Stoddart (2002, 7) offers a suggestion about the best course 

of action; “ask your teacher for a copy of the mark scheme 

and see how well you are able to apply it in your work. 

Check as you go along to see if there is any areas in which 

you think you need to improve.” 

Here is one example of a marking guide: 

Areas of assessment 

Using lines 

Aspects of form 

Composition 

Use of tones and shading 

Subject matter 

Total out of 100% 

Marks, out of 50 Scores ×2 

Essentially, a marking guide is necessary for making a 

successful evaluation or estimation process during marking. 

It enables teachers to work out proper scores, to determine 

the set number of marks from a list of specified aims and 

objectives. 

Index 

A 

aesthetic 135, 224 

African art 11 

Alignment 41 

animal 134, 141, 142, 165 

antique ornaments 136 

Areas of assessment 240 

artistic 142, 160, 234 

artwork 37, 131, 183, 

203, 216, 218, 219 

B 

balance 37, 145, 233 

Balance 36, 94, 225 

Bamboo 64, 68, 140, 149 

Barack Obama 164 

bark cloth 122, 134, 163 

baskets 146, 147, 148, 150, 151 

bead 138, 144 

Binding 108, 249 

black and white are 

not colours 29 

blue 227 

bristled brushes 68 

C 

Calligraphy 234, 236 

carrot and spinach leaves 169 

ceramics 128 

ceremonies 164, 165 

chalk 46 

Child Sacrifices 237 

Clarity 19 

cloth 73, 122, 128, 134, 

147, 164, 165, 179 

Commercial 68, 115, 248 

complementary colours 29, 111 

compose 111 

composition 126, 145, 234 

computer 229 

Congo 163 

Continuity 41 

Continuous assessment 239 

Croquis 54 

crucifixion antiquities 135 

culture 145 

D 

Damboo 149 

D.D.T powder or gammexine 74 

digital 78, 108, 113, 

115, 221, 228, 229 

dole out 180 

dust jacket or a sheath 109 

E 

educate 126 

Embossing 216 

empathy 218 

environment 121, 126, 

132, 174, 182, 202 

evaluation opinions 239 

evaporation and shrinkage 206 

examination room 232 

F 

File or filing 143 

Flag 235 

flat colours 95 

G 

Gesso 69 

Ghana 165 

goblet, chalice, (wine cup) 136 

grass 148, 150 

green 215, 227 

group 164, 181, 223, 236 

H 

hand building 213, 219 

hardware 112, 228 

Harmony 40 

HB 44, 45 

Health Care 237 

Hemp 153, 166 

honey, sugar, or local brew 67 

human figure 52, 53 

hyacinth 150, 151 

hyphenation 84 

I 

ideas 143, 220 

illustrations 96 

improvisation 65, 68 

indigenous 147, 148 

ink 86, 168, 169, 171, 234 

Intermediate 31 

interpretation 135 

J 

jeweller 137, 138 

jewels 130, 134 

Jute 153 

K 

kanzu 15 

Kelp 153 

kiln 200 

knife and a needle 153 

L 

learning objectives 14, 53, 72, 240 

leaves 146, 149, 154, 

165, 168, 169, 175 

life drawing 48 

light 180, 183, 207, 

220, 223, 226, 227 

light table 178 

Line 24, 42, 93 

linear 131 

Luminosity 19 

M 

Maito 238 

Masai 147 

model 56 

Monogram 235 

movement 37, 38, 183, 184 

Movement 42 

Mursi 134, 141 

N 

NAADS 235 

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT 

MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY 236 

National Tourism Authority 238 

natural materials 168, 188 

nature 47, 223 

nature drawings of detailed 48 

necklace 137, 144, 145 

O 

oak 196 

objective study 59 

Oil kiln 200 

Omo 141 

Omo valley 134, 141 

Open fire kiln 200 

ornament 145 

P 

paint 161, 168, 202 

paper 47, 48, 53, 56, 58, 86, 87, 

115, 116, 125, 131, 138, 140, 144, 

161, 166, 168, 227, 228, 231, 238 

patterns 142, 143, 157, 

161, 165, 173, 177, 216 

pen 181, 227, 234 

pencil 45, 87 

Perspective 34, 225 

photography 221, 

223, 224, 226, 228 

plain weave 157 

plate 48 

pottery 131, 206, 207, 

208, 210, 218, 219 

Principles of design 34, 224 

Proportion 39, 94 

Proximity 41 

240 241

Q 

quill feather 68 

R 

raffia 148 

red 227 

regalia 142 

registration marks 176, 177 

relief 131, 169, 182, 185 

religious 164, 182 

repetition 39, 225 

Resemblance 19 

Rhythm 37, 42, 93 

ritual 145, 182 

S 

sculpture 182, 183, 185, 

186, 187, 188, 202, 203 

seed 165 

Self-composed 19 

shape 198, 199 

Shape 22, 42, 93 

shatter flap paper 228 

Similarity 41 

sketch 58, 131, 144, 179 

sketchbook 45 

slab 199 

soak, sieve and sift 211 

social 135, 182 

source of inspiration 

131, 174, 175, 181 

Space 27, 224 

spirit 184 

still life 37, 47 

stool 147 

stoop 37 

sturdy 110 

T 

Tesserae 129 

textile 165, 166, 173 

Texture 28, 42, 93, 223 

tool 136, 143, 154, 216 

Tourism 238 

tribal 147, 182, 237 

U 

Uganda 146, 149, 163, 235 

uniform 164, 212 

Unity 40, 224 

V 

Value 29 

varied colours 116, 131 

Variety 41 

vital 56, 57, 82 

Volume Four 239 

W 

warp-faced weave 158 

Waste mould 200 

wax 128, 172, 179, 180, 187, 188 

wonted people 134 

wood 115, 124, 128, 134, 143, 

146, 165, 169, 182, 185, 187, 

188, 191, 196, 207, 215 

worship 16, 134, 181 

Y 

Youthfulness 19 

Youth Project 235 

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250 251

Art and Design: A Comprehensive Guide for Creative Artists is a textbook carefully 

written to guide and equip learners with art and design knowledge and skills through 

training, schoolwork and practice—consideration of the following aims: 

252 

• Providing scholarly academic guidance and 

instructions associated with creating awareness of local 

community needs through art and design. 

• Art education is an important carrier of creative talent. 

Thus, the book gives learners a chance to carry on with art 

knowledge and skills in the time of school and out side school. 

• It contains necessary suggestions of teaching art and 

design—identify sources of inspiration from nature, 

inventiveness and experimentation. 

• Also, this book is compiled with theories of teaching art and 

design in secondary schools, and art colleges. 

• Ultimately, a lot of consultations about useful academic 

comprehension have been referred to as a way of stretching for 

essential knowledge for integrated art education.

Art and Design A comprehensive guide for creative artists - Aaltodoc

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