The hereditary sultan, Hassanal Bolkiah Mu’izzaddin Waddaulah, is the head of state and prime minister, and continues to wield broad powers under a state of emergency imposed in 1962, when Brunei was still governed as a British protectorate.

In recent years, Brunei has appeared to be paving the way for Hassanal’s son, Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah, to take power. There are no indications that any transition would involve moving away from a traditional monarchy.

The unicameral Legislative Council has no political standing independent of the sultan, who appoints its members. Brunei has not held direct legislative elections since 1962.

Elections are held for village-level councils that play a consultative role, though candidates are vetted by the government.

There are no national-level electoral laws, and there have not been any national, direct legislative elections in over five decades.

Genuine political activity by opposition groups remains extremely limited. The National Development Party (NDP) was permitted to register in 2005 after pledging to work as a partner with the government and swearing loyalty to the sultan; it is Brunei’s only registered party.

There are no national-level elections in which opposition forces could gain power. Since the National Solidarity Party was deregistered without explanation in 2007, the NDP has been Brunei’s sole legal political party. It has no formal political role and is unable to challenge the sultan’s power in any meaningful way.

With the dominance of the sultan and lack of elections, residents have few avenues for genuine and autonomous political participation. However, people have a very limited ability to challenge unpopular policies through the organization of social movements.

Members of ethnic, religious, and other minority groups have few opportunities for political participation, even on a local level. Village council candidates must be Muslim, and ministers and deputy ministers must be Muslim and Malay unless the sultan grants an exception. Since many ethnic Chinese in Brunei remain permanent residents and not citizens, they are further excluded from the country’s politics. Women play a minimal political role at the national and local level.

No national-level policymakers are chosen through elections. The sultan wields broad powers and is counseled by appointed advisory bodies and the appointed legislature.

In 2015, the government enacted amendments to the Prevention of Corruption Act, which strengthened the anticorruption framework by establishing new conflict of interest rules for public officials, among other provisions. The government claims to have a zero-tolerance policy on corruption, and its Anti-Corruption Bureau has successfully prosecuted a number of lower-level officials.

In early 2020, two former judges were convicted of charges including money laundering over accusations that they embezzled millions of dollars from government-controlled accounts. In July 2021, the Court of Appeal upheld their convictions and lengthened their prison sentences.

Although the appointed Legislative Council has no independent power, it formally passes the state budget and engages in question-and-answer sessions with government officials. The council meets once each year for a session lasting approximately two weeks. However, government operations are largely opaque.

Officials may close newspapers without cause and fine and imprison journalists for up to three years for reporting deemed “false and malicious.” Brunei’s only television station is state-run. The country’s main English-language daily newspaper, the Borneo Bulletin, is controlled by the sultan’s family and its journalists often practice self-censorship. Another English-language newspaper, the Brunei Times, closed abruptly in 2016, allegedly after complaints from the Saudi embassy in Brunei over critical coverage of Saudi hajj policies. The Scoop, a news site that launched in 2017, contains mildly independent coverage.

The state religion is the Shafi’i school of Sunni Islam, but the constitution allows for the practice of other religions. Non-Shafi’i forms of Islam are actively discouraged, and marriage between Muslims and non-Muslims is not allowed. Muslims require permission from the Ministry of Religious Affairs to convert to other faiths. Christians are allowed to hold low-key Christmas celebrations inside churches or at homes, but not outdoors or at shopping malls.

In 2014, Brunei implemented new criminal regulations based on Sharia (Islamic law), which include limits on the use of certain words and expressions deemed to be sacred to Islam in reference to other religions. The code also includes a ban on proselytizing of a religion other than Islam to Muslims or atheists and requires Muslims to participate in religious observances. In April 2019, the government implemented a second phase that mandated death by stoning for insulting the prophet Muhammad, though a moratorium on this phase was issued that May.

Academic freedom is respected to some extent, although institutions must seek approval from authorities to host visiting scholars, public lectures, and conferences. Scholars reportedly practice self-censorship.

The government utilizes an informant system to monitor suspected dissidents, and online communications are monitored for subversive content. In 2019, a former civil servant became the first individual to be convicted under the Sedition Act after making statements criticizing the government’s halal certification policy; the individual subsequently fled Brunei, fearing punishment under laws prohibiting same-sex activity as a gay man. Nevertheless, Brunei has an increasingly active and vibrant online community, though internet users reportedly self-censor regarding issues related to the monarchy.

Long-standing state-of-emergency laws restrict freedom of assembly. No more than 10 people can assemble for any purpose without a permit, and these laws are frequently enforced.

Most nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are professional or business groups, although a few work on issues related to social welfare. All groups must register, registration can be refused for any reason, and registered groups can be suspended.

The law guarantees the right to form and join a union, but the agreement that had permitted Brunei’s only formerly active union, the Brunei Oilfield Workers Union, is expired. Strikes are illegal, and collective bargaining is not recognized.

Brunei has a dual judicial system of secular and Sharia courts; all senior judges are appointed by the sultan. The courts appear to act independently when handling civil matters, and have yet to be tested in political cases or under the new regulations recently phased in. They have not shown independence in any cases relating to the sultan’s interests, however.

Civil and criminal law is based on English common law and is enforced in secular courts, while Sharia is enforced in Sharia courts. People detained under the Internal Security Act lack due process rights including the presumption of innocence.

The country’s controversial Sharia-based penal code was delayed for several years; Brunei introduced the first phase in 2014 but did not fully implement the code, which contains penalties including amputations and death by stoning, until 2019.

The government only provides an attorney to indigent defendants in death penalty cases. To address this gap in access to justice, the Law Society of Brunei launched a pilot program for the country’s first legal aid fund in 2018.

Brunei retained the death penalty for crimes including drug trafficking before the new Sharia code was launched. However, no individual has been executed since 1957. Prison conditions generally meet international standards.

Sharia-based criminal statutes implemented in 2019 contain more severe penalties for violations including consensual same-sex relations, theft, and adultery; they vary from whippings to amputations and death by stoning. That May, the sultan issued a “de facto moratorium on capital punishment,” but did not issue clarification on the other provisions.

Bruneian citizenship is inherited from citizen fathers. Citizen mothers must complete an application to pass citizenship on to children born to a noncitizen father. Thousands of stateless residents of Brunei, including longtime ethnic Chinese residents, are denied the full rights and benefits granted to citizens. The royal family receives unique and favored treatment in all aspects of laws, policies, and practices.

LGBT+ people living in Brunei are subject to severe penalties for same-sex relations under Sharia-based laws. Under regulations introduced in 2019, consensual same-sex acts can be punished by death, or by whipping if the offenders are female.

Freedom of movement is respected. All government employees, domestic and foreign, must apply for permission to travel abroad, but permission is easily obtained. Brunei did not rely on aggressive lockdowns seen elsewhere in the region in response to COVID-19.

Stateless children do not have free access to education and instead must apply to enroll in schools; if accepted they sometimes have to pay tuition not required of citizens.

Bruneian citizens are able to own property and can establish businesses with relative ease, but protections for private property are weak. State-linked firms dominate many sectors of the economy and the government heavily subsidizes a number of industries.

Women are disadvantaged in Brunei under Islamic law in matters involving divorce and child custody. The Sharia penal code criminalizes “indecent behavior,” enjoins women to dress “modestly,” and makes abortion and extramarital sex capital offenses. There is no specific law against domestic violence, and although rape is a capital crime, spousal rape is not criminalized.

Transgender people are prohibited from dressing in line with their gender identity under the Sharia-based penal code.

There is no private-sector minimum wage in Brunei. Labor inspections are frequent but are often aimed at identifying undocumented migrant workers. Migrants who come to Brunei to serve as household workers are often coerced into involuntary servitude or debt bondage and can face varying forms of abuse. Workers who overstay visas are regularly imprisoned and, in some cases, caned.

According to the US State Department’s 2021 Trafficking in Persons Report, Bruneian authorities are making efforts to combat human trafficking; however, they did not identify trafficking cases, prosecute traffickers, or secure convictions during the reporting period. The government operates a shelter for women and boys who are trafficked, but adult males do not receive shelter or services.

Brunei ratified the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Convention against Trafficking in Persons and acceded to the United Nations Trafficking in Persons protocol in 2020.